For about six decades before Zephaniah began his service as YHWH’s prophet, the majority of the Israelites in the kingdom of Judah engaged in abominable idolatrous practices and in other ways made themselves guilty of seriously transgressing God’s commands. Especially during the reign of Josiah’s grandfather Manasseh and on account of his corrupt influence, the people generally acted worse than the Canaanites. (2 Kings 21:2-16) Manasseh’s successor, his son Amon, persisted in following a God-dishonoring course. After the assassination of Amon, the eight-year-old son Josiah became king. (2 Kings 21:19-24; 22:1)
During Josiah’s reign, Zephaniah started to proclaim the messages that had been divinely revealed to him. Josiah, at the age of 15 or 16 in the eighth year of his reign, began earnestly seeking to do God’s will and about four years later set out to destroy appendages of idolatry in the capital city Jerusalem and throughout his entire realm. (2 Chronicles 34:3-7) The campaign to root out idolatry continued in the eighteenth year of his rule. (2 Kings 23:1-14; 2 Chronicles 34:8, 29-33) Therefore, it may rightly be concluded that Zephaniah commenced prophesying early during Josiah’s reign or at a time idolatry continued to be openly practiced in the kingdom of Judah. (Zephaniah 1:4, 5)
Although not specifically stated in the biblical account, Zephaniah’s prophesying and that of Jeremiah who was called to be a prophet in the thirteenth year of Josiah’s reign must have encouraged the young king to prove himself to be a devoted servant of YHWH. (Jeremiah 1:1, 2) Zephaniah’s ancestry is traced back to Hezekiah, doubtless the most illustrious member in the genealogical line. (Zephaniah 1:1) This suggests that Zephaniah may well have been a descendant of King Hezekiah and, as such, may have had ready access to Josiah and, therefore, would also have been familiar with the sins of members of the royal household. (Zephaniah 1:8)
The expression “word of YHWH” identifies YHWH as the source of the message that was imparted to Zephaniah (Sophonias [LXX]). In the case of other prophets, their name is commonly linked only to their father. The longer genealogy for Zephaniah (“son of Cushi [Chousi (LXX)], “son of Gedaliah [Godolias (LXX)], son of Amariah [Amarias (LXX)], son of Hezekiah [Hezekias (LXX)]” is an exception. Aside from the names, nothing else is known about Cushi the father of Zephaniah, Gedaliah his grandfather, and Amariah his great-grandfather. As the last ancestor to be mentioned, Hezekiah must have been the most prominent one. This provides a basis for concluding that he may well have been the godly monarch Hezekiah of the tribe of Judah in the royal line of David. “In the days of Josiah the son of Amon,” or while Josiah ruled as “king of Judah,” Zephaniah began serving as a prophet. (1:1; see the introduction for additional comments.)
YHWH is represented as declaring that he would execute a judgment that would result in a complete destruction. His “utterance” or the expression of his purpose was “to sweep away,” yes, “sweep away everything from the face” or surface “of the land.” The Septuagint rendering could be understood to refer to the effecting of an abandonment or an extinction. (1:2)
The universal nature of YHWH’s judgment is portrayed as his sweeping away (abandoning or causing the extinction of [LXX]) “man and beast” (cattle or land animals) and “birds of the heavens and fish of the sea.” This listing of the creatures to be swept away is in the reverse order of the creation as set forth in Genesis chapter 1 — sea creatures and birds, beasts (cattle or land animals), and man. YHWH is represented as saying that he would sweep away the “stumbling blocks, the wicked.” The “stumbling blocks” would be persons who trip up others, causing them to embark upon a divinely disapproved course. Those designated as the “wicked” would be corrupt and lawless individuals. (1:3; see the Notes section.)
From the surface of the land, YHWH would “cut off” man (adhám [earthling], a collective singular). The apparent reference is to humans who persist in defying his commands and will. (1:3)
In expression of his judgment, YHWH would “stretch out” his “hand against Judah and against all those residing in Jerusalem.” The stretching out of the hand refers to taking severe punitive action as when using the hand to inflict a blow. “From this place,” meaning Jerusalem, YHWH purposed to “cut off” or “remove” (LXX) the “remnant [names (LXX)] of the Baal” and “the name of the idolatrous priests with the priests.” The remnant of the “Baal” could refer to any remaining Baal worshipers in the land or anything associated with Baal worship, thereby, as indicated in the Septuagint, removing from the land the “names,” or any mention, of Baal. “Idolatrous priests” were the devotees of nonexistent deities that were represented by images, and the priests probably were men who carried out a semblance of worshiping YHWH at various high places. The cutting off or removal of their “name” would signify that they would not continue living in the land. (1:4; see the Notes section.)
YHWH would also “cut off” or remove those “bowing down on the roofs to the host of the heavens.” This would be persons who, while on the roofs of their houses, venerated the sun, moon, stars, and planets as deities. YHWH’s judgment would also be directed against those bowing down to him in worship and swearing oaths in his name while also swearing by Malcam or Milcom, a nonexistent deity. As persons who were not exclusively devoted to YHWH, they would not escape the execution of his punitive action against them. (1:5; see the Notes section.)
According to 1 Kings 11:33 and 2 Kings 23:13, Milcom was a god that the Ammonites worshiped. Through the influence of his foreign wives, King Solomon built “high places” or cultic sites for the adoration of this and other deities. The designation “Milcom” or “Malcam” is derived from a Hebrew root meaning “king.” This explains why the Septuagint rendering is “king” and not a transliterated form of the Hebrew name of the false god. (1:5)
The ones who turned away from following after YHWH and did not seek him nor inquire of him appear to designate persons who had become indifferent toward him. They did not seek to be in an approved condition before him and had no desire to benefit from his guidance. Besides not seeking him, they (according to the Septuagint rendering) did not cleave to him. (1:6)
“Silence” (literally, “hush”) is the only appropriate response “before the face of the Lord YHWH” or in his presence. It is then a time for humble submission to the expression of his judgment and not a time for complaint or protest. The Septuagint does not mention “silence,” but calls for being reverential “before the face of the Lord God.” The reason for being silent or showing reverence is the nearness of the “day of YHWH” or the time for him to execute his judgment. Those about to face his severe judgment are the sacrifice he has prepared, for they would be the ones who would come to their end just like a sacrifice that is consumed upon the altar. The “called ones” YHWH has sanctified are the ones he has set apart or designated to carry out the punitive judgment. (1:7)
It will be on the “day of [his] sacrifice” that YHWH would make his visit to execute judgment. Those to be punished were to be the “princes” (“rulers” [LXX]) and the “sons of the king” (“house of the king” [LXX]) and all those wearing “foreign attire.” The princes were the leaders in the kingdom of Judah, and the “sons of the king” were members of the royal household. They should have been exemplary in their conduct and in the discharge of their duties, but they failed in being upholders of justice and proved to be corrupt. (1:8)
According to the law given to the Israelites, their garments were to have fringes and a blue cord above the fringe. (Numbers 15:37, 38) Depictions of Israelites on Assyrian reliefs reveal that the fringes were hanging from the entire hem of the garments. (See an Assyrian representation.) According to Deuteronomy 22:12, the Israelites were to put tassels at the four corners of the cloak. Those who chose to wear foreign attire would have disregarded the law, and their doing so may also have been an indication that they favored alliances with the nations whose style of clothing they had adopted. (1:8)
YHWH would “visit” for judgment “on that day” or at that time of visitation all those “leaping over the threshold.” The expression “leaping over the threshold” may, on the basis of 1 Samuel 5:5, designate the act of superstitiously avoiding stepping on the threshold when entering a sanctuary as a sign of reverence for a deity. One view is to regard the entire verse as relating to idolatry. “At that time I will punish all those who worship other gods. They fill the temples of their gods with lies and other harmful things.” (NIRV) It is also possible that “leaping over the threshold” could apply to forcing entry into houses for the purpose of stealing. This could then mean that those “filling their master’s house with violence and treachery” were servants who engaged in robbery and thievery and thereby filled the houses of their owners with the goods obtained through violence and treachery. The Septuagint makes no mention of “leaping over the threshold” but indicates that, in the day of judgment, God would take vengeance openly or publicly on “all those at the gateways” or in the open area adjacent to the city gates. These individuals are described as filling “the house of the Lord their God with impiety and treachery,” indicating that they acted in a godless and deceitful manner in matters of worship. (1:9; see the Notes section.)
In the day or in the time for YHWH’s judgment to be directed against Jerusalem and the kingdom of Judah, the inhabitants of the city would cry out in distress. The forces that would bring ruin to Jerusalem appear to be represented as launching their attack from the north, the apparent location of the “Fish Gate” (2 Chronicles 32:5; 33:14; Nehemiah 3:3; 12:39), which led into the “second [quater]” of the city. As the enemy warriors would advance, devastating the area, a loud crash would resound from the hills. (1:10; see the Notes section.)
Those residing in “Maktesh” or the “Mortar [quarter]” are called upon to howl or wail on account of the calamity. This area of the city must have been south of the “second quarter” and possibly had been named “Maktesh” after a basinlike depression resembling a mortar used for pulverizing grain, olives, and a variety of other products with a pestle. (1:11; see the Notes section.)
“All the people” who were “traders” (kená‘an) would be “cut off” or come to their end. The Hebrew designation kená‘an commonly applies to Canaan and, in this context, refers to traders. This is evident from the reference to “all those weighing out silver” (literally, “all those laden with silver”), which would have been done when merchants did buying or selling. According to the Septuagint, “all the people were made like Canaan [Chanaan],” indicating that they would experience conquest just as did the Canaaanites when the Israelites took possession of the land of Canaan. The Septuagint concludes with the thought that all those incited or excited by silver were destroyed. These would be persons who were eager to acquire more silver through commercial activity. (1:11)
At that time of judgment there would be no escape for anyone. YHWH is represented as saying that he would search Jerusalem with lamps to find all who had thought to find safety by hiding. He would punish those who were “thickening upon their lees.” With reference to their lawless ways, they were like an inferior wine that was left on the dregs or lees (the particles that settle to the bottom when the wine remains undisturbed). In case of such a wine, unlike one of good quality, its being left on the dregs does nothing to enhance the quality. The godless individuals said in “their heart” or reasoned within themselves that YHWH would do neither good nor bad. Accordingly, they imagined having no reason to expect or to fear a future time of reckoning. The Septuagint describes these men as despising what they were divinely obligated to carry out (literally, “their commands” [a rendering that appears to have arisen from reading the Hebrew word as a form of shamár (keep or observe) instead of the plural shemarím (dregs). (1:12)
Contrary to their expectations, the divinely disapproved ones would be punished. Their wealth or possessions would become booty for the military forces that YHWH would use as his instrument for executing judgment. At that time, the houses of these individuals would be destroyed. While they may have built houses, they would not be able to continue inhabiting them. Though they may have planted vineyards, they would not be able to drink the wine made from the juice of the grapes. This is because the people would either perish or be taken into exile. (1:13)
The “great day of YHWH,” or the time for the execution of punitive judgment, is described as “near” (qaróhv). For emphasis, the Hebrew word qaróhv is repeated, and the adjective mahér and the adverb me’ód indicate that the day would be coming at an “exceedingly swift” pace. The “sound” of YHWH’s day is referred to as being “bitter,” for it would result in a bitter experience for those who would be affected. They would also give way to bitter lamentation or wailing. “There,” where the judgment would be evident, even a “mighty man” or warrior would cry out in distress or fear. It is also possible that the warrior’s shout designates the cry of the attacking force. (1:14; see the Notes section.)
The Septuagint refers to the “sound” of the Lord’s day as “bitter and hard” or “harsh.” Possibly, with seeming reference to the “sound,” the Greek expression tétaktai dynaté may mean “it has been made strong.” (1:14)
YHWH’s day is a “day of wrath,” for it is a day for expressing his anger against those who persist in acting contrary to his ways. As a day of “affliction and distress,” it denotes calamity for those who defiantly refuse to submit to God’s will. This day spells destruction for the godless, making it a day of “ruin and devastation.” With no bright prospect or hope of relief or escape, those against whom judgment is expressed would experience this “day” as one of “darkness and gloom, a day of cloud [mass] and thick darkness.” (1:15)
YHWH’s day is a “day of shofar” (“trumpet” [LXX]) or a time when the ram’s-horn trumpet is used to sound an alarm. It is a day when a battle cry rises from the attacking forces against the fortified cities and against the high battlements (literally, “corners”). (1:16)
YHWH would bring affliction or distress on man (adhám [earthling], a collective singular). People would then walk about like blind men, confused and frightened like persons unable to see hazards and where they were going. This calamity would befall them because they had sinned against YHWH, disregarding his commands. Enemy forces would ruthlessly slaughter them. So many would be slain that their blood would be poured out as if resembling countless dust particles, and their bowels (“flesh” [LXX]) would be poured out like dung, being treated as mere refuse. The Hebrew text does not specifically identify the agent that would pour out the blood and the bowels, but the Septuagint attributes this act to God, the one who would be using enemy forces to accomplish this. (1:17)
The wealthy would not be able to escape calamity. Their silver and their gold would be of no value in effecting deliverance for them in the day YHWH would express his wrath. All the “earth” or the land would be consumed by the “fire of his zeal,” the zeal for what is right and just. YHWH does not tolerate lawlessness, but directs his anger against those who deliberately conduct themselves in a corrupt and unjust manner. The consuming of the land as by fire affects the lawless ones. This is evident from the concluding thought indicating that YHWH would make a complete and sudden end of all those inhabiting the “earth” or land. (1:18)
Notes
In verse 3, the Septuagint does not include any reference to the “stumbling blocks” and the “wicked.” A Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) preserves the letter he (H), the last letter of the divine name (YHWH), in paleo-Hebrew script.
Faithful Israelites, including the prophets, considered false gods and the images by means of which they were represented as shameful things, and proper names that included the designation “baal” were at times changed to bósheth, meaning “shame.” (Compare 2 Samuel 2:8; 9:6 with 1 Chronicles 8:33, 34.) The Hebrew word bósheth is feminine gender, and this may explain why the Septuagint translator used the feminine article when referring to the false god Baal. (Zephaniah 1:4)
Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint start verse 5 with the conjunction “and,” but this conjunction is not included in a Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr).
Modern translations vary in their renderings of verse 9. “On that day I will punish all who leap over the threshold,who fill their master’s house with violence and fraud.” (NRSV) “On that day I will punish all who avoid stepping on the threshold, who fill the temple of their gods with violence and deceit.” (NIV) “On that day I shall punish all who dance on the temple terrace, who fill their Lord’s house with crimes of violence and fraud.” (REB) “I will punish worshipers of pagan gods and cruel palace officials who abuse their power.” (CEV) “On that day I shall punish all who go up the Step and fill the Temple of their lords, with violence and deceit.” (NJB) “I will punish all who worship like pagans and who steal and kill in order to fill their master’s house with loot.” (GNT, Second Edition) “On that day I will punish those who worship Dagon, those who hurt others and tell lies in the temples of their gods.” (NCV) “On that day I will punish everyone who is quick to jump through the door, who fill the house of their owner with angry actions and lies.” (NLB)
In verse 10, the literal reading of the Hebrew designation for “Fish Gate” is “gate of the fishes.” It appears that the Septuagint translator read the daleth (D) in the Hebrew expression for “the fishes” as a resh (R), which changed the meaning to “slaying.” “Piercing” or “slaying is the significance of the Greek participial form of the word apokentéo found in the text.
The Septuagint, in verse 11, does not contain a transliteration of Maktesh or a corresponding word for “mortar.” The expression found in the Septuagint may be understood to designate a “destroyed section.”
Verse 14 has also been rendered, “The great day of the LORD is near, near and coming fast; no runner is so swift as that day, no warrior so fleet.” (REB) This wording for the concluding part of the verse is based on an emendation of the Hebrew text. A Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) preserves the first three letters of the divine name in paleo-Hebrew script.
In verse 17, a Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) preserves the first three letters of the divine name in paleo-Hebrew script.
A repetition of imperative forms of the Hebrew verb qashásh intensifies the need for acting accordingly and may be translated, “Assemble and be assembled.” In the Septuagint, two words (synágo and syndéo) convey the same thought and may be rendered, “Be assembled and be bound together” or be gathered together as a collective whole. (2:1)
The imperative is addressed to a “nation,” a nation that is then referred to with the Hebrew word kasáph preceded by lo’ (“not”). In other contexts, kasáph means “longed for” or “desired.” In Mishnaic Hebrew, the word has been defined as “grow pale” and in Jewish Aramaic as “be ashamed.” A common rendering in the present context is “without shame,” identifying the people of the nation as without any sense of shame respecting their lawless conduct. The Septuagint rendering indicates the nation to be undisciplined or untaught, suggesting that the people refused to respond to corrective discipline or instruction and continued to pursue their godless course. As the context indicates, the people of the kingdom of Judah made up this nation, and the imperative for them to assemble called for them to hear YHWH’s judgment against them. (2:1)
An opportunity to avoid experiencing the execution of this judgment remained open to the nation, but it would not be available indefinitely. Action needed to be taken before the appointed time (literally, “before a decree is born” or the previously decreed or appointed divine judgment takes place), before the “day” of judgment “has passed away like chaff” that the wind quickly blows away, “before the burning anger of YHWH comes upon you, before the day of YHWH’s wrath comes upon you.” The opening phrase of the Septuagint is, “Before you become like a withering blossom,” perishing in the time of judgment. (2:2)
Although the right course was open to all, the implication is that only the humble or lowly, those who recognized their dependence on God, would avail themselves of the only hope of escape from his wrath. All humble or meek ones of the “earth” or the land are directed to “seek YHWH,” wanting an approved standing before him. They are described as “doing” or carrying out “his commands,” and are then encouraged to “seek righteousness,” to “seek humility” or “meekness,” endeavoring to maintain upright conduct and a humble or meek spirit of submission to God’s will. This course could mean being “hidden” or spared from adverse judgment in the “day of YHWH’s wrath.” (2:3; see the Notes section.)
In the Hebrew text, the adverb ’uláy, meaning “perhaps,” is included in connection with being “hidden.” Even those who respond aright would not consider their being concealed from YHWH’s wrath as owing to them but would regard it as an expression of his mercy. When the day of judgment came at the time YHWH permitted the Babylonian forces to desolate the land of Judah and destroy the city of Jerusalem, there were among his devoted servants those who escaped with their lives but were not concealed from all suffering. So it may be that the addition of ’uláy (“perhaps”) serves to express, in a relative sense, the prospect of being hidden. (2:3)
The coming of YHWH’s day of judgment would also affect surrounding nations that had repeatedly demonstrated themselves to be enemies of his people. Among these were the Philistines who continued to inhabit the region along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Their major cities would be conquered. After military defeat, Gaza would be “abandoned” or, according to the Septuagint, would be “despoiled.” Ashkelon (Askalon [LXX]) would be reduced to a “waste” The inhabitants of Ashdod (Azotus [LXX]) would be “driven out” at midday. As this is the hottest time of the day, the reference appears to be to a sudden and unexpected conquest and immediate expulsion from the city. Ekron (Akkaron [LXX]) would be “uprooted,” ceasing to be a populated city. (2:4)
Woe is pronounced on those inhabiting the “territory by the sea” or the land bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. These inhabitants are identified as members of the “nation of Cherethites.” The location of their territory and the close association with the Philistines suggests that they were Philistines or related to them. According to the Septuagint, they were “Cretans.” Amos 9:7 refers to the Philistines as having come from Caphtor or Crete. (2:5)
YHWH’s word of judgment was directed against Canaan and more specifically against the land of the Philistines (“allophyles” or “those of another tribe” [LXX]). He decreed that he would destroy the people dwelling in the region so that no inhabitant would be left. (2:5)
The depopulated territory by the sea would become a region of pastures with wells for shepherds and enclosures for flocks of sheep and goats. It appears that the Septuagint translator linked the Hebrew expression that may be translated “territory by the sea” to Crete, for the Septuagint reads, “Crete will be a pasture for flocks.” (2:6)
After being taken into exile to Babylon, a repentant remnant of the “house of Judah” would be able to return to their own land. At a time then future, they would come to possess the former Philistine territory by the sea. (2:7)
Clear antecedents are missing for the phrase, “Upon them, they will graze.” One possibility is to supply “pastures” and “flocks” from verse 6. The words could then be understood to mean that flocks of sheep and goats would be grazing in the pastures of the eastern Mediterranean coast. Possibly those tending the flocks may be the ones who, in the evening, would lie down to rest in the “houses of Ashkelon.” This change in the circumstances of the exiles from the territory of the kingdom of Judah would come about because “YHWH their God” would turn his attention to them and bring them back from captivity. (2:7; see the Notes section.)
The Philistines were not the only non-Israelite peoples against whom YHWH’s wrath would be expressed. He is represented as having “heard the reproach of Moab and the revilings of the sons of Ammon.” Whenever the people in the kingdom of Judah suffered calamities, especially invasions and devastation of their land and cities, the Moabites and Ammonites gave way to taunting his people, taunting that also brought reproach upon YHWH. In their taunts, the Moabites and Ammonites must have referred to the people of Judah as being no different than any other nation and to their God as being no more able to deliver them from calamity than were the gods of other nations that had suffered defeat. (2:8; compare Ezekiel 25:8 and the Assyrian taunt in Isaiah 36:15-20.)
The boasting of the Moabites and Ammonites may be understood to have been against the territory of YHWH’s people (literally, “their territory”), parts of which they would be able to seize to enlarge their own borders. Other possible meanings are expressed in the interpretive renderings of modern translations. “I have heard the insults of Moab, the taunts of the Ammonites, how they reviled my people and encroached on their frontiers.” (REB) “I have heard the people of Moab and Ammon insulting and taunting my people, and boasting that they would seize their land.” (GNT, Second Edition) “I’ve heard Moab and Ammon insult my people and threaten their nation.” (CEV) “I have heard the taunt of Moab and the insults of the Ammonites, as they taunted my people and boasted of their own domains.” (NJB) “I’ve heard Moab and Ammon insult my people and boast about their own nation.” (CEV, main text and footnote) The Septuagint rendering “my borders” limits the application of the boasting to be against the territory of God’s people. (2:8)
With words typical of one taking an oath (“therefore, as I live”), “YHWH of hosts, the God of Israel” is portrayed as prefacing his declaration of judgment against Moab and the Ammonites based on their conduct toward his people. He is the God with hosts of angels in his service, and his solemn expression of judgment could not fail to be fulfilled. Moab would become like Sodom, a city that was destroyed in the time of Abraham and Lot. Gomorrah was also annihilated then, and the “sons of Ammon” or the Ammonites would be wiped out as a people just as were Gomorrah and its inhabitants. The desolated territory of Ammon would come to be possessed by “nettles” (a possible meaning for the Hebrew word charúl) or other weeds that flourish in devastated areas. (2:9)
The reference to the region coming to be like a “salt pit” indicates that it would be ruined in its devastated state, unsuitable for cultivation. According to the Septuagint rendering, the city of Damascus in Syria would be “forsaken like a heap of salt.” For all time to come, the area would be a waste. The “remnant,” meaning the repentant ones among God’s people, would gain the ascendency. Their change in circumstances is portrayed in terms of plundering their enemies. The survivors of God’s nation would come to “possess them,” probably meaning the lands of the Moabites and Ammonites. This aspect seems to represent a reversal of the fortunes of God’s people, for a desolate and unproductive region would not add anything of value to their own land inheritance. (2:9)
In his Antiquities (X, ix, 7), the first-century Jewish historian Josephus referred to Nebuchadnezzar’s military campaign against Coele-Syria, Ammon, and Moab in the fifth year after this Babylonian monarch and his forces had destroyed Jerusalem. The reality that the Moabites and Ammonites have ceased to exist as identifiable peoples undeniably confirms the fulfillment of the divine judgment against them. (2:9)
The severe judgment that was destined for the Moabites and Ammonites would be repayment for their pride or their haughty attitude toward God’s people, the “people of YHWH of hosts” (“the Almighty” [LXX]) or the God with hosts of angels in his service. Great pride was in evidence when the Moabites and Ammonites reproached or taunted his suffering and humiliated people and then boasted in what they perceived to be their superior position and in what they would be able to do on account of the weak position of the Israelites. According to the Septuagint, their taunting and boasting were “against the Lord the Almighty,” for the Israelites were his people. (2:10; see the Notes section.)
YHWH would be fearsome to the peoples against whom his judgment would be expressed. This would expose as worthless the gods that they worshiped. Accordingly, YHWH is portrayed as emaciating “all the gods of the earth” or the land. These gods would be revealed as unable to aid or protect their worshipers and, therefore, as being like famished persons who are weak and helpless from lack of nourishment. YHWH’s judgment would prompt “all the islands,” or coastal regions, that is, those residing there, to “bow down” in worship to him, each man or person “in his place” or his respective location. (2:11; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering.)
The Cushites or Ethiopians were another people to be affected by the judgment to come. They were to be slain by the sword, probably the sword (a singular collective) the Babylonian military force would wield in warfare against the Egyptians with whom the Ethiopians were closely associated. The Septuagint refers to the Ethiopians as “wounded ones of my [God’s] sword.” (2:12)
YHWH is represented as stretching out his hand for the purpose of striking against the “north,” the region the Assyrians occupied. By means of the instrument he would permit to take action against the Assyrians, YHWH would destroy Asshur or Assyria and reduce the capital city Nineveh to a desolate site. The city would become a dry waste like the arid desert. This was fulfilled in the fourteenth year of Nabopolassar’s reign. At that time Nineveh fell before the forces of this Babylonian monarch and of Cyaxares the Mede. (2:13)
As a city in ruins, Nineveh is described as a place where flocks lie down and birds and wild animals have their haunt. The expression “all the beasts of a nation” (“all the beasts of the earth” or land [LXX]) may refer to a large number of all kinds of wild animals. There is a measure of uncertainty about the specific creatures the Hebrew names designate. In the Septuagint, the Hebrew noun qa’áth is here rendered “chameleons” (the plural of chamailéon). The Hebrew word is commonly understood to refer to a bird and has been variously rendered “screech owl” (NAB), “horned owl” (REB), “desert owl” (NIV, NRSV), “pelican” (NJB), and “jackdaws” (Tanakh). In case of the Hebrew noun qippód, the Septuagint rendering “hedgehog” (echínos) may be a good choice. Modern translations have variously rendered qippód as “desert owl” (NAB), “bustard” (REB), “screech owl” (NIV, NRSV), and “porcupine” (NJB). Atop the capitals of fallen pillars, owls or other birds and hedgehogs or porcupines might be seen spending the night. According to the Septuagint, chameleons and hedgehogs would be sleeping in the “[fallen] coffered ceilings.” (2:14)
A “voice” singing in the window may be understood to be the sound of a bird perched in the window or the sound of wind howling through the opening. With no door in the doorway, the threshold could be described as in a state of “desolation.” Instead of “desolation” or “dryness” (chórev), numerous modern translations have taken the Hebrew noun to be ‘órev and translated it as “raven.” The rendering “raven” does have the support of the Septuagint, which refers to “ravens” as being in the gates or gateways of Nineveh. (2:14)
“Cedar,” likely that used in the construction of buildings in Nineveh, would be “laid bare,” which may mean that the wood would lie exposed among the ruins. The Septuagint rendering appears to relate to Nineveh as having been elevated or lofty like a cedar. (2:14)
The Assyrian capital Nineveh is identified as an exultant or jubilant city and residing carefree or secure (in “hope” [LXX]). According to the Septuagint, the city showed contempt, as would persons who considered themselves as superior to others and as having no rivals. Nineveh is represented as saying “in her heart” or in her inmost self, “I [am] and [there] is none besides me.” These words indicate that the Assyrians considered themselves to be safe and in a strong position and, therefore, without any fear of conquest. Contrary to this estimation, Nineveh would be laid waste and become a place where wild animals would lie down. All those passing by the desolated site would express their contempt for the place, whistling or hissing and wagging their heads (waving their “hands” [LXX]). (2:15)
Notes
In verse 3, the Septuagint does not include any reference to “commands” but expresses the imperative, “practice judgment and seek righteousness.” The phrase that then follows may literally be rendered, “and respond to them,” upholding what is right and endeavoring to live uprightly.
The words of verse 7 that are rendered “upon them” do not have a clear antecedent in the Masoretic Text and in the Septuagint. For the Hebrew text, “pastures” can be supplied from verse 6, but the Septuagint rendering lacks even this distant antecedent. The wording of the Septuagint could be understood to indicate that, in areas bordering the sea (the Mediterranean) and which included the vicinity of Ashkelon, flocks would pasture “in the houses of Askalon” (Ashkelon) “before the face of the sons of Judah” or before the Judeans who would be tending the sheep.
In verse 10, a Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) preserves the last two letters (waw [W] and he [H]) of the divine name (YHWH) in paleo-Hebrew script.
The reading of the first part of verse 11 in the Septuagint differs from the extant Hebrew text. “The Lord will manifest himself against them and destroy all the gods of the nations of the earth.”
Jerusalem is the city that proved to be rebellious, polluted, and oppressive. With few exceptions, the inhabitants of the city and the Israelites living throughout the realm of the kingdom of Judah had rebelled against YHWH, failing to observe his law. They had defiled themselves with idolatrous practices. The poor or lowly members of the nation suffered from cruel treatment and oppression, often being taken advantage of through the imposition of an exorbitant debt load and forced to sell themselves or their children into slavery. (3:1)
In the Septuagint, the city is described as “notable and ransomed,” the “city, the dove.” The thought could be that Jerusalem was distinguished as the location of the temple, YHWH’s representative place of dwelling. Jerusalem had been ransomed or delivered from the Jebusites who continued to have possession of the stronghold of Zion until the time of King David. Possibly because of the clean and innocent standing Jerusalem enjoyed after David made it his capital, it is here called “the dove.” Another possibility is that Jerusalem was easily deceived into entering alliances with foreign powers, thus being like a dove that is not wary and, therefore, readily ensnared. (Compare Hosea 7:11.) The Septuagint rendering “the dove” does not depart from the consonantal Hebrew text, for the Hebrew word “dove” (yohnáh) and the participial form for “oppress” are the same. (3:1)
The “voice” to which Jerusalem did not listen was YHWH’s voice expressed through his prophets. As representing all the Israelites in the realm of the kingdom of Judah, Jerusalem did not accept his discipline or correction, refusing to heed the admonition to abandon the course that dishonored him. Instead of putting their trust in YHWH as the one who could assure their security and well-being, the leaders of the nation looked to the military might of foreign nations with which they made alliances. The people generally did not draw near to YHWH in a spirit of repentance and humility, desiring to have his approval. (3:2)
The “princes,” rulers, or leaders in Jerusalem were like “roaring lions,” behaving like ruthless beasts of prey when resorting to oppression and violence in dealing with those subject to them. In the evening or at dusk, hungry wolves begin their hunting. Judges were like ravenous wolves among the people, failing to render justice and perverting justice for bribes. Especially in their decisions respecting the poor, the corrupt judges proved to be like wolves that greedily devour prey so that nothing is left in the morning. (3:3)
In the Septuagint, the reference is to “wolves of Arabia,” the arid region of Arabia. This is not a departure from the consonantal Hebrew text. The designation “Arabia” basically conveys the same meaning as the renderings “steppe” (Tanakh) and “desert” (Margolis). (3:3)
Prophets who presumed to speak in YHWH’s name were insolent or reckless, uttering expressions that lulled the inhabitants of Jerusalem into a false sense of security and that showed reckless disregard for what he required from his people. These prophets arrogantly represented their own words as messages from YHWH and exalted themselves above those whom he had chosen as his prophets. The Septuagint rendering, a form of pneumatophóros, may be understood to describe these prophets as windbags or spirit-moved men, that is, moved by a spirit other than God’s spirit. Because what they proclaimed could not be trusted, they were treacherous men or, according to the Septuagint, scorners, men who ridiculed truth and YHWH’s prophets. (3:4)
The priests in Jerusalem failed seriously in performing their duties as teachers and upholders of the God’s commands. Instead of insisting on maintaining holiness or purity among the people, they profaned what was sacred and did violence to the law. They may have made themselves guilty of this serious transgression by allowing the wealthy and influential Israelites to treat the divine requirements respecting holiness with impunity while interpreting the commands to lowly Israelites in a manner that made them burdensome, harsh, and unjust. The Septuagint indicates that they desecrated the law, failing to manifest the devout attitude they should have had respecting it as its upholders and defenders. (3:4)
Whereas the people in Jerusalem and throughout the realm of the kingdom of Judah proved to be corrupt, YHWH revealed himself to be righteous in the midst of Jerusalem or among his people the Israelites. He adhered to the highest standard of purity and justice, never doing anything that had even the slightest taint of “wrong” or injustice. Morning by morning, or every day, YHWH revealed his justice, making known through the prophets his just decisions respecting individuals or nations or using human instruments to execute his punitive judgment against individuals and peoples who acted contrary to his ways. At the light of dawn each day, judgment or justice was not lacking. Nevertheless, the unrighteous one did not know shame, never being ashamed of having acted corruptly or unjustly with others. (3:5; see the Notes section regarding the rendering of the concluding phrases in the Septuagint.)
By permitting military forces to conquer nations, YHWH is portrayed as having cut them off, with “their towers” (probably those of city walls, but literally, “their corners”) being in ruins, and as having made formerly busy streets waste, with no one passing over them. Cities were desolated to such an extent that no man was left. There was no one continuing to inhabit the cities that lay in ruins. (3:6; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering.)
In view of what the Israelites living in the territory of the kingdom of Judah saw happening to other nations, YHWH is represented as saying (in expression of what should have been expected from the people) that Jerusalem (as representing the people) surely would fear him, showing the highest respect for him by faithfully adhering to his law, and would accept his discipline or the corrective admonition he provided through his prophets. The Septuagint represents God as telling the people, “Only fear me and accept discipline.” (3:7)
Submission to his will would have assured that the “dwelling” of Jerusalem would not be cut off. The Septuagint expresses the assurance in an emphatic manner with two words for “not” that may be rendered “by no means.” “And you will by no means be destroyed from [before] her eyes,” probably meaning that Jerusalem would not see her inhabitants perish and, by extension, none of the Israelites living in the territory of the kingdom of Judah. (3:7; see the Notes section.)
There is a measure of obscurity about the next phrase in the Hebrew text and how it may be linked to the rest of the verse (“all that I have visited upon her”). This has given rise to a variety of renderings. “So her dwelling shall not be cut off, despite all that I have visited upon her.” (Margolis) “Then her dwelling would not be cut off, nor all my punishments come upon her.” (NIV) “So her dwelling will not be cut off according to all that I have appointed concerning her.” (NASB) “Then her dwelling place would not be cut off [based on] all that I had allocated to her.” (HCSB) “None of the punishments I brought on them will disappear from their view.” (NJB) “She should not fail to see all I have visited upon her.” (NAB) The Septuagint rendering is likewise obscure, and there is an addition that has no parallel in the extant Hebrew text. “And you will by no means be destroyed from [before] her eyes — all as much as I have taken vengeance upon her.” Possibly this could be taken to mean that Jerusalem had already suffered enough punishment for the wrongs committed in her midst, and the people would not be destroyed if they abandoned their sinful ways. The extant Hebrew text could be understood similarly. (3:7)
Instead of repenting (as should have been expected from them), the people “rose early,” probably to continue pursuing their wayward course. “They made all their deeds corrupt,” acting contrary to God’s commands. (3:7; for the Septuagint rendering, see the Notes section.)
“Therefore,” or because of the wayward course of the Israelites generally, the ones being encouraged to wait for YHWH appear to be the faithful remnant in the midst of the people. These faithful ones were to wait for the day when he would “arise” to the “prey” (‘ad) or, based on a different vowel pointing, for a “witness” (‘ed). The Septuagint rendering is martýrion (“testimony” or “witness”). For YHWH to arise to the “prey” could signify that he would rise up to take action against the nations that had been hostile to his people, treating these enemy nations as if they were prey to be seized. His doing so for a testimony or as a witness could signify that he would thus prove his word respecting the execution of his judgment to have been trustworthy. (3:8)
YHWH’s punitive judgment would be expressed against the nations and kingdoms that he determined to assemble before him. Upon them, he would “pour out” his “indignation,” all his “burning anger.” The result would be that “all the earth,” or all those who persisted in their hatred of YHWH’s people, would be consumed by the “fire” of his “zeal,” his zeal for justice. (3:8; see the Notes section.)
A significant change would occur among the people of the nations that would witness the execution of YHWH’s judgment. He is represented as then “turning” or granting a “pure lip” or a pure language to the peoples other than the nation he had formerly recognized as his own. In the past, their “lip” or language had been defiled by their calling upon nonexistent deities for help, guidance, and protection. They would cease to do so and abandon God-dishonoring practices. As persons forgiven of their sins, they would be able to call upon the “name of YHWH” (the God represented by the name) with clean lips or a pure language and to “serve him” with “one shoulder” or, according to the Septuagint, under “one yoke.” Thus serving him suggests that they would willingly submit themselves to his will like persons bearing loads or yokes on their shoulders. Translators have commonly rendered “one shoulder” as “shoulder to shoulder” or “with one accord.” ) (3:9; see the Notes section.)
The expression “daughter of my scattered ones” probably designates repentant Israelites who would find themselves in exile. From beyond (the “ends” of [LXX]) the “rivers of Cush” or Ethiopia, they, as persons supplicating YHWH, would bring his offering. While the place to which the offering or the sacrifice would be brought is not mentioned, those who first heard the prophetic words would have understood the place to have been the temple in Jerusalem. The rivers of Ethiopia may be understood to designate the Nile and its tributaries. (3:10)
In the “day” or time when Jerusalem would no longer be guilty of the disregard of YHWH’s commands as repeatedly had been the case formerly among the Israelites, the city, as representing the repentant people, would not be ashamed because of having committed deeds that constituted transgression against him. YHWH then would remove from the midst of Jerusalem those who exulted in their arrogance, pridefully ignoring his commands. The Septuagint refers to his removing the “contempt of your [Jerusalem’s] haughtiness.” This appears to indicate that he would take away from the people the contempt or disdain to which arrogance gives rise. Jerusalem, meaning the people, would no longer “add” being haughty in his “holy mountain.” At his sanctuary, they would make their approach as persons who humbly submitted to his will and delighted to conform to his ways. In the Septuagint, the preposition preceding “my holy mountain” is epí and can mean “against.” The thought the rendering conveys could then be that the people would never again, by their refusal to do God’s will, act like arrogant braggarts against his holy mountain. (3:11; see the Notes section.)
In view of the action YHWH would take, the ones left remaining in the midst of Jerusalem would be a “humble and poor” (“meek and humble” [LXX]) or lowly people. They would be true Israelites, individuals who would recognize their being dependent upon him and indebted to him for everything. They would “seek refuge” in (“show reverence” for [LXX]) the “name of YHWH,” fully relying on him as the God represented by the name and looking to him for guidance, help, and safeguarding. The description of those left remaining especially fits the children or citizens of the “Jerusalem above” mentioned in Galatians 4:26. (3:12)
The remnant of Israel would “not do wrong” or engage in unjust practices and would “not utter falsehood [vanity, worthlessness, emptiness, or folly (LXX)].” A “deceitful tongue” would not be “found in their mouth.” They would enjoy God’s loving protective care and attention like sheep that can peacefully graze and lie down to rest, with no one making them afraid. (3:13)
“Daughter of Zion” and “daughter of Jerusalem” are parallel expressions. The designation “daughter” applies to the city that is represented as the mother of her inhabitants. With the removal of corrupt ones from the midst of Jerusalem, the city is invited to give way to great rejoicing, crying aloud joyfully. The people of Israel (whose “mother” is Jerusalem) are told to shout for joy. “With all the heart” or the fullest extent possible, the “daughter of Jerusalem” is to “rejoice and exult.” Although restoration from Babylonian exile must have brought joy to the repentant Israelites who returned to Jerusalem, the rejoicing of the children of the “Jerusalem above” is far greater. Forgiven of their sins, they are God’s approved children who are liberated from the condemnation to which sin leads and are granted all the privileges and blessings in which members of his family share. (3:14; see the Notes section.)
In the past, YHWH permitted enemy nations to serve as his instruments for bringing punitive judgments upon Jerusalem (representing all the people in the realm of the kingdom of Judah). His promise to take away these judgments and to cast out the enemies of Jerusalem was so certain that it is expressed as already having been fulfilled. According to the Septuagint rendering, the “Lord took away” the iniquities of Jerusalem and “redeemed” or delivered the people (Jerusalem) from the “hand” or power of their enemies. As the “king of Israel,” he is in the midst of Jerusalem, protecting and caring for his people. Therefore, the people (Jerusalem) would no more see or experience any evil or calamity. (3:15)
Concerning the children of the “Jerusalem above” (Galatians 4:26), it can indeed be said that God is in their midst. They are not the objects of his punitive judgments nor are they at the mercy of any enemy. No evil or calamity can deprive them of their precious standing as approved members of God’s family. (3:15)
In the day or at the time when God is in the midst of Jerusalem or among his people, it would then be said to Jerusalem, “Fear not [Take courage (LXX)].” With YHWH as the protector and helper, there would be nothing to fear. To “Zion” or Jerusalem, the appropriate words are, “Let not your hands drop [weaken (LXX)].” With God being the one who would safeguard and strengthen his people, they would not be like weak and discouraged individuals who could not lift the hands drooping to their sides. (3:16)
YHWH, as the God in the midst of Jerusalem, is described as a “mighty one” who is certain to save and to rejoice over the people (Jerusalem) with joy, finding delight in them as his own. The Septuagint rendering indicates that God would bring joy to Jerusalem or to his people and renew them (Jerusalem) or invigorate them “in his love.” His love would fill his people with new strength. The Hebrew text refers to YHWH as being “silent in his love.” Perhaps this is to be understood that his love would be evident in his caring attention and deeds (unlike human expressions of love that may be mere words without corresponding actions). The keen delight he would have in his people is highlighted by the repetition of the thought that he would rejoice over Jerusalem with a joyful cry. According to the Septuagint, his joy or delight would be “as on the day of a festival.” (3:17)
YHWH’s removing “grieving for a festival” (if this is the literal sense of the Hebrew text) could denote that he would take away the sorrows of his people resulting from being unable to observe their festivals while in exile. The participial form of the word for “grieve” (yagáh) is plural. Therefore, the words “they were a burden” could signify that the sorrows of the people were like a heavy burden they had to bear. This burden was also a reproach for them, as it made it appear to others that their God could not help them. (3:18; see the Notes section.)
The Hebrew word for “remove” (’asáph) can also mean “gather” or “assemble.” This is the rendering found in the Septuagint. “And I will gather the broken ones,” or the ones who had been subjected to great distress. Although the Septuagint refers to reproach, the wording of the entire phrase is framed as a question. “Woe, who has taken up a reproach against her?” This could signify that woe or calamity would befall those who reproached Jerusalem at the time the city was destroyed and the surviving population was taken into exile. (3:18)
At the time YHWH would turn his favorable attention to his people, he would take action against all those who had afflicted Jerusalem. According to the Septuagint, he, “for the sake of you” (Jerusalem), would act in her (literally “you”). As a destroyed and depopulated city, Jerusalem could be described as “lame” or “limping” (“pressured” or oppressed [LXX]). YHWH’s saving lame Jerusalem would indicate that the city would be rebuilt and again become a thriving city. With those of the city’s population and all other survivors from the territory of Judah being in exile, Jerusalem is portrayed as having been “driven away.” The return of the exiles would mean that YHWH had gathered them and brought them back to their land, ending the expulsion for Jerusalem. Upon bringing his people from exile, YHWH would “set” or establish them “as a praise [for pride (LXX)] and as a name in all the land of their shame.” The desolated land proved to be a cause for shame to the people. That shame would cease. Their transformation from a humiliated people in exile to a restored people in their own land would make them an object of praise and renown. (3:19; see the Notes section.)
Restoration was certain, for YHWH promised to bring the people home at the time he would be gathering them. The assurance that their exile would end is emphasized by repeating that he would make them “as a name and as a praise [for pride (LXX)].” “Among all the peoples of the earth,” they would become an object of praise and renown because of what their God had done for them when turning back their “captivity” or captive condition “before [their] eyes,” letting them see the marvelous transformation from their humiliated condition as exiles to that of a liberated people. (3:20)
Notes
According to the punctuation in Rahlfs’ printed Greek text for verse 5, the concluding thought could be rendered, “Morning by morning, he [God] will give his judgment in the light, and it has not been hidden. And he does not know injustice by extortion, and [he does] not [know] injustice by strife.” This rendering suggests that God’s judgment would be clearly manifest each day, and his justice would never be tainted by resorting to any oppressive measures or conflict. A shorter reading of the Septuagint may be understood to conclude with the thought that God would not permit injustice to triumph.
The Septuagint rendering of verse 6 differs somewhat from the reading of the Masoretic Text. It does not refer to “nations” but indicates that God “tore down the proud.” According to the majority of extant Greek manuscripts, his “thoroughly” desolating the ways or the streets is expressed in the future tense. The cities of the proud are described as having “vanished because [there is] no one to exist nor to reside [in them].”
In verse 7, where the Hebrew text reads “dwelling” and the Septuagint says “eyes,” a Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) has the partially preserved word pegé, meaning “spring” or “fountain.” In the Septuagint, the concluding words of verse 7 are, “Prepare; rise early! All their gleaning is spoiled.” Perhaps the thought is that the people should get ready for the judgment to come, as not even a gleaning or remnant of upright persons was to be found in the kingdom of Judah. A different vowel pointing of the extant Hebrew text would allow for a rendering that somewhat parallels the present text in the Septuagint.
Starting with verse 8, the focus is on developments that are related to those who are Israelites in the true sense of the word. In the first century CE, when Jesus, the promised Messiah, appeared on the scene, these true Israelites put their faith in him as the Messiah or Christ and the unique Son of God. This provides a basis for concluding that the prophetic words may also point to developments linked to them and a judgment of the nations that is yet future.
The Septuagint rendering (verse 9) about the “turning” or changing of the tongue differs somewhat from the extant Hebrew text and may literally be translated, “For then I will turn to the people a tongue for her generation.” This could mean that the change in the tongue or language would be for the generation or offspring of the “earth” (the feminine antecedent in verse 8).
In verse 11, the reference to developments regarding Jerusalem especially applies to all who are children or citizens of the “Jerusalem above.” They willingly and joyfully seek to do God’s will. Among those whom God recognizes as his children or the citizens of heavenly Jerusalem, there are none remaining who pridefully disregard his commands. He has removed them as persons not belonging to him.
For verse 14, the rendering of the Septuagint conveys basically the same thought as the extant Hebrew text. “Rejoice exceedingly, daughter of Zion; call out, daughter of Jerusalem. Be cheerful and be joyful from your entire heart, daughter of Jerusalem.”
In view of the obscurity of the Hebrew text of verse 18, translations vary considerably in their interpretive renderings. “The sorrows for the appointed feasts I will remove from you; they are a burden and a reproach to you.” (NIV) “I will take away the sadness planned for you, which would have made you very ashamed.” (NCV) “I will take away your cries of woe and you will no longer endure reproach.” (REB) “I have taken away your misfortune, no longer need you bear the disgrace of it.” (NJB) “I will gather those who grieve about the appointed feasts — they came from you, O Zion; the reproach of exile is a burden on them.” (NASB) “I will gather those of you who mourn for the festival, so that you will no longer suffer reproach.” (ESV)
In verse 19, the Septuagint refers to Jerusalem as driven away or thrust out, but then indicates that God would “take” or welcome the people and make them for pride and renown “in all the earth.” Then, in verse 20, the reference in verse 19 of the Hebrew text to “their shame” appears to be represented as indicating that the enemies of God’s people would be “disgraced in that time.” Modern translations vary in the way they interpretively render the expression about “shame.” “I will give them praise and honor in every land where they were put to shame.” (NIV) “I will change their shame into praise and renown in all the earth.” (NRSV) “I will make those who were disgraced throughout the earth receive praise and fame.” (HCSB) “Then they will be praised, instead of despised, in every country on earth.” (CEV)