The book of Hosea primarily focuses on the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, and the events related therein are closely linked to the prophet’s domestic life. Hosea’s years of prophetic service were filled with sadness. His wife Gomer proved to be an adulteress. Of the three children to whom she gave birth, Hosea appears to have fathered only one. The tragic developments in Hosea’s personal life served to portray Israel’s unfaithfulness to YHWH and, at the same time, dramatically revealed God’s justice, mercy, and love in dealing with his wayward people.
Hosea 1:1, 2.
Masoretic Text: The word of YHWH, which came to Hosea, the son of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, the kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam, the son of Joash, the king of Israel. At the beginning, YHWH spoke to Hosea and YHWH said to Hosea, “Go, take a woman of whoredom and children of whoredom, for [the people of] the land whore to an extreme, [turning away] from following YHWH.” Septuagint: The word of the Lord, which came to Hosea, the one of Beeri, in the days of Uzziah and Jotham and Ahaz and Hezekiah, the kings of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam, the son of Joash, the king of Israel. [This was the] beginning of the word of the Lord to Hosea, and the Lord said to Hosea, “Go, take for yourself a wife of whoredom and children of whoredom, for [the people of] the land will whore to an extreme, [turning away] from following the Lord.” Notes:
Proper names are spelled differently in the Septuagint. In this translation of Hosea, however, the usual spellings have been retained.
In Hebrew and in Greek, the extreme degree to which the people “whored” is conveyed by repeating a form of the word for “whore.”
Regarding the divine name (YHWH), see Psalm 1.
Commentary:
The name Hosea is an abbreviated form of Hoshaiah, which means “saved of Yah [YHWH].” His being called “son of Beeri” does not provide any clue about his background, as this Beeri is not mentioned elsewhere in the Scriptures. When starting to serve as YHWH’s prophet, Hosea was a young man of marriageable age. YHWH’s word or message first came to him while King Uzziah of Judah and King Jeroboam were contemporary rulers. Hosea’s long prophetic activity continued through the complete reigns of Judean kings Jotham and Ahaz, included at least part of the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah, and so may have spanned some 60 years. Contemporary prophets were Isaiah and Micah and probably also Amos and Jonah. (2 Kings 14:25; Isaiah 1:1; Amos 1:1; Micah 1:1)
Hosea does not relate how the word of YHWH came to him. As in the case of other prophets, the message may have been conveyed to him in a dream or vision. The initial message directed Hosea to marry a “woman of whoredom.” The children to whom she would give birth would not all be Hosea’s offspring and, therefore, in advance, are designated as “children of whoredom.” The fact that the children involved a future development may give support to the deduction that the woman whom Hosea was to take as wife would not have been guilty of prostituting herself prior to the marriage.
In view of the widespread idolatry existing among the people, however, there is a strong possibility that the woman whom Hosea was to choose as a wife would be one who had committed prostitution as part of ceremonial rituals. In the time of Elijah, comparatively few Israelites did not engage in the worship of Baal. Although Jehu later suppressed Baal worship, this may only have been directed against the kind Jezebel had introduced or his efforts may have produced only temporary results. (1 Kings 19:18; 2 Kings 10:18-31; 17:7-18)
The unfaithfulness of Hosea’s wife would serve to illustrate the course of the professed people of YHWH in their pursuit of false gods. This constituted a breach of their covenant relationship with YHWH, which bound them to him like a wife to her husband. The extent of unfaithfulness would be revealed even further by the fact that children to whom Hosea’s wife would give birth would not all be his but would include offspring of her adulterous course.
The reading of the Masoretic Text and that of the Septuagint indicate the high degree of the unfaithfulness by the repetition of two forms of the word for “whore.” English translations convey this by such renderings as “the land commits great whoredom” (NRSV), “the land is guilty of the vilest adultery” (NIV), “the land commits flagrant harlotry” (NASB), and “the land is entirely given up to whoredom.” (Darby) In this context, the land denotes the people inhabiting the land which YHWH had given them as a possession. They had abandoned YHWH and prostituted themselves through involvement in idolatrous worship.
Masoretic Text: And he went and took Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim, and she conceived and bore him a son. Septuagint: And he went and took Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim, and she conceived and bore him a son. Commentary:
Hosea acted on the divine directive and married Gomer. No mention is made of Diblaim elsewhere in the Scriptures, and, therefore, nothing is known about her background. Gomer did bear a son to Hosea, indicating that this son was their legitimate child.
Masoretic Text: “And YHWH said to him, “Call his name Jezreel, for yet a little while and I will visit the blood of Jezreel upon the house of Jehu, and I will cause the kingdom of the house of Israel to cease.” Septuagint: And the Lord said to him, “Call his name Jezreel, for yet a little while and I will avenge the blood of Jezreel upon the house of Jehu, and I will cause the kingdom of the house of Israel to cease.” Note:
Commentary:
YHWH directed Hosea to name his son “Jezreel,” meaning “God sows.” If, in this case, the significance of the name is linked to its meaning, the thought could be that YHWH would take punitive action, “sowing” or “scattering” the people as exiles away from their land. One of the threatened judgments for unfaithfulness was for the Israelites to be taken into exile and scattered among the nations. (Deuteronomy 28:63, 64) The name Jezreel could embrace this aspect of YHWH’s judgment. Another possibility is that the boy’s name would call attention to what had happened and was about to occur at the location of Jezreel.
The time for an accounting would not be prolonged. Within a short period, divine vengeance would befall the royal “house” or dynasty of Jehu for the blood spilled at Jezreel. Although having served as YHWH’s instrument for destroying the royal house of Ahab at Jezreel, Jehu appears to have acted in keeping with his own ambitions, as suggested by his continuance of calf worship. (2 Kings 9:14-10:11) Just as Nebuchadnezzar was rewarded for his actions against Tyre, so Jehu was rewarded for his role in destroying the idolatrous royal house of Ahab and its loyal supporters. (2 Kings 10:30, 31; Ezekiel 29:17-20) Because of carrying out his own aims, however, Nebuchadnezzar was not freed from accountability for a record of ruthless bloodshed, and neither was the royal house of Jehu.
The “visitation” of judgment came during the brief reign of Zechariah, the fourth king of the royal house of Jehu. Shallum conspired to seize the throne, launched an attack against Zechariah, and killed him. The violent end of Jehu’s dynasty served to “avenge the blood of Jezreel.” (2 Kings 15:8-10)
About fifty years of instability followed. These were marked by repeated assassinations of kings and Assyrian invasions. With the fall of Samaria to the Assyrians, the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel ceased to exist. (2 Kings 15:13-30; 17:1-6)
Masoretic Text: And it will be in that day that I will break the bow of Israel in the valley of Jezreel. Septuagint: And it will be in that day that I will break the bow of Israel in the valley of Jezreel. Commentary:
“That day” is the time when YHWH would execute his adverse judgment. As a weapon, the “bow” evidently represents Israel’s military might or its ability to protect itself against enemies. Situated between the hilly area of Galilee in the north and that of Samaria in the south, the valley of Jezreel stretches in a southeasterly direction from Mount Carmel. What is thought to be the site of ancient Jezreel lies approximately at the midway point of the valley.
When the Assyrians invaded during the reign of Pekah and devastated the northern part of the realm, the power of the ten-tribe kingdom was basically broken. The final blow came during the reign of Hoshea when the Assyrians conquered Samaria, bringing a complete end to the ten-tribe kingdom. (2 Kings 15:29; 17:1-6) During either one of these Assyrian campaigns, Israelite forces may have suffered a decisive defeat in the valley of Jezreel.
Masoretic Text: And she conceived again and bore a daughter, and he said to him, “Call her name Lo-ruhamah, for I will not still show mercy to the house of Israel, but I will surely take them away.” Septuagint: And she conceived again and bore a daughter, and he said to him, “Call her name Not-Being-Shown-Mercy, for I absolutely will not still show mercy to the house of Israel, but I will surely oppose them.” Notes:
Instead of a transliteration of the name “Lo-ruhamah,” the Septuagint reading conveys the significance of the name.
The Hebrew reading “house of Israel” evidently designates the people of Israel, as does the Septuagint expression “sons of Israel.”
In the Septuagint, the showing of mercy is negated by two different words for “not” and so signifies “absolutely not,” “by no means,” or “definitely not.”
Although the extant text of the Septuagint preserves the doubling of the words (“opposing I will oppose,” which evidently is to be understood to mean “surely oppose”), the meaning is not the same as the Hebrew “taking I will take” (possibly meaning “surely take away”). The repetition of forms of the same word serves to intensify. In the Septuagint, the reference is to an intense, complete, or utter opposition. While the Septuagint reading conveys a readily understandable meaning, this is not the case with the Masoretic Text. The “taking” has been understood to refer to a “taking away” (as into captivity), throwing away or casting off, or a taking away of sin (by linking this meaning of “taking away” with the “not” preceding the word for “add” [the Hebrew literally reading, “not add still showing mercy”], the significance is “surely not take away”). The Tanakh (JPS) reads, “I will no longer accept the House of Israel or pardon them.” A footnote, however, states: “Meaning of Heb. uncertain; emendation yields “but will disown them.” Other renderings are: “I abhor them utterly.” (NAB) “I will cast them off.” (Luther, German revised edition) “I will certainly take them away.” (HCSB)
Commentary:
Gomer again became pregnant, but the daughter to whom she gave birth is not linked to Hosea (as was Jezreel), suggesting that the girl was not his child. YHWH instructed Hosea to call her Lo-ruhamah (Not-Shown-Mercy). This name would call attention to YHWH’s refusal to show mercy to the people of the ten-tribe kingdom because of their continued record of unfaithfulness. As a people, they had gone beyond the point where repentance was possible. Therefore, YHWH, according to the extant reading of the Septuagint, would take an unchangeable stand against them. Depending upon the significance of the Hebrew text, the meaning could be that he would no longer forgive them, would cast them off, or would cause them to be carried away into exile.
Masoretic Text: “And for the house of Judah I will have mercy, and I will deliver them by YHWH their God, and I will not deliver them by bow and by sword and by war, by horses, and by horsemen.” Septuagint: “But to the sons of Judah I will show mercy, and I will deliver them by the Lord their God, and I will not deliver them by bow, nor by sword, nor by war, nor by chariots, nor by horses, nor by horsemen.” Note:
Commentary:
Unlike the people of the ten-tribe kingdom who would be abandoned to the consequences of their idolatrous course, the “sons,” “house,” or people of Judah would be shown mercy and delivered from the power seeking their ruin. The deliverance, however, would not be by means of any implements of war or engaging in battle with horses, horsemen, and chariots. Deliverance would be effected solely by YHWH their God.
In the fulfillment, the ten-tribe kingdom ceased to exist when the Assyrians conquered Samaria and then took the survivors as captives to other lands. When Assyrian King Sennacherib threatened to seize Jerusalem, YHWH intervened. Without King Hezekiah having to resort to the use of bows, swords, horses, horsemen, and chariots, Jerusalem was saved. In one night, YHWH’s angel struck down 185,000 of the Assyrian host, forcing Sennacherib to abandon his plans to conquer Jerusalem. (2 Kings 19:32-36) In this way, the “sons of Judah” were saved without any military action on their part.
Masoretic Text: And she weaned Lo-ruhamah, and she conceived and bore a son. Septuagint: And she weaned Not-Being-Shown-Mercy and conceived again and bore a son. Commentary:
After having weaned Lo-ruhamah, Gomer again became pregnant. Unlike Jezreel (who is mentioned as having been borne to Hosea), this boy, like the girl Lo-ruhamah, is not so identified and, therefore, appears not to have been Hosea’s offspring.
Masoretic Text: And he said, “Call his name Lo-ammi, for you [are] not my people, and I will not be to you.” Septuagint: And he said, “Call his name “Not-My-People, for you [are] not my people, and I am not yours.” Note:
Commentary:
The name by which YHWH directed Hosea to call the boy, “Lo-ammi” (Not-My-People), revealed that he had rejected the people of the ten-tribe kingdom. On account of their idolatrous course, YHWH refused to recognize them as belonging to him. Their relationship to him had ceased to exist. To the people, YHWH was no longer their God.
Masoretic Text: And the number of the sons of Israel will be like the sand of the sea, which cannot be measured or counted, and [it] will be in the place it was said to them, “You [are] not my people,” it will be said to them, “sons of the living God.” Septuagint: And the number of the sons of Israel was like the sand of the sea, which cannot be measured nor counted, and it will be in the place, where it was said to them, “You [are] not my people,” there they will be called “sons of the living God.” Notes:
The Hebrew word that can be rendered “will be” may also be translated “was.” In the Septuagint, however, the first occurrence of the term is in the imperfect tense and the second time the word is in the future tense. It would appear that the future tense provides the best sense, as the reference is to a future development.
Many take the reference to “place” to mean the area of the ten-tribe kingdom and so regard the passage as signifying that in the very “place” where they were called “not my people,” there (in that location) they, in the future, would be called “sons of the living God.” This is the basis for the view that, during Christ’s 1,000-year reign, the Israelites would be occupying the same physical location and be acknowledged as “sons of the living God.”
It appears preferable, however, to regard “in place” or “in the place” as an idiomatic expression, meaning “in place of” or “instead of” — “and instead of being told, ‘You are Not-My-People,’ they shall be called Children-of-the-Living-God.” (Tanakh [JPS]) The passage itself primarily focuses on the changed relationship, not the location where this change would come about. Restoration of an approved relationship required those who were estranged to repentantly return to YHWH, with the location in which they found themselves being incidental.
The portion of Hosea 1:10 (2:1) quoted in Romans 9:26 is identical to the reading of the Septuagint.
Where the Masoretic Text introduces the part about being called “sons of the living God,” a partially preserved Dead Sea Scroll reads, “he will say,” not “it will be said.”
Commentary:
YHWH’s rejection of the people was not to cut them off permanently from the possibility of regaining a good relationship with him in the future. By implication, this also did not forever debar others who were not his people from becoming such. The time would come when the number of the “sons of Israel” would be beyond measuring and counting, like the “sand of the sea” (apparently the sand of the seashore or the sand of the beach bordering the sea), and be acknowledged by the living God as his “sons.”
In ceasing to be his people, the unfaithful Israelites came to have the same status as all the other nations. Therefore, a relationship with YHWH for persons not “his people” could come to include more than the rejected Israelites who could be reconciled by repentantly returning to him. This is the application of YHWH’s words, through Hosea, set forth in the apostle Paul’s letter to the Romans (9:24-26).
Harmonizing with the promise that Abraham’s seed would be “as numerous as the stars of heaven and as the sand that is on the seashore” and that those formerly not God’s people would be beyond measuring and counting, John saw, in vision, “a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, from all tribes and peoples and languages, standing before the throne and before the Lamb.” (Genesis 22:17; Revelation 7:9, NRSV)
Masoretic Text: And the sons of Judah and the sons of Israel will be gathered in unity, and they will set [for] themselves one head, and they will go up from the land, for great [will be the] day of Jezreel. Septuagint: And the sons of Judah and the sons of Israel will be gathered in unity, and they will set [for] themselves one authority, and they will go up from the land, for great [will be] the day of Jezreel. Commentary:
Although not directly stated previously, the rejection of the “sons of Israel” included being taken into exile, and the same development is implied for the “sons of Judah.” The time would come, however, when descendants of former residents in the territories of both kingdoms would cease to be divided. Unitedly, they would place themselves under one head or leader and “go up” from the land of their exile, evidently to return to their homeland. According to the historical record preserved in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, the first group of returnees were under the leadership of Zerubbabel of the tribe of Judah.
Evidently the return from exile proved to be the beginning of the “great day of Jezreel,” as it marked the start of the fulfillment of the meaning of the name “God sows.” The once depopulated land again came to be filled with people. This was indeed a “great,” marvelous, or wonderful time. As YHWH made the return of the exiles possible, he was the One who populated the land, as if scattering or sowing seed.
Centuries later a greater “head” or leader from the line of David appeared on the earthly scene. Jesus, the promised Messiah and Son of God, proved to be the “head” under whom all who accept him form a united whole, one body. Throughout the centuries since then, many have accepted him as their head, and so there has indeed been a “sowing of seed.”
Masoretic Text: Say to your brothers, “my people,” and to your sisters, “shown mercy.” Septuagint: Say to your brother, “my people,” and to your sister, “being shown mercy.” Note:
Commentary:
Those to whom the second person plural imperative “say” is directed are not identified. Likely, in view of the previous statement pointing to restoration, the words apply to all who have been shown mercy. The imperative encourages them to manifest a welcoming family spirit to those who were once not shown mercy and not God’s people. They should now, as part of the family reconciled to YHWH, be called “my people” and “shown mercy.” The mercy was manifest in their being granted God’s forgiveness and thereupon being acknowledged by him as his people.
Masoretic Text: Contend with your mother, contend (for she is not my wife and I am not her husband) that she remove her whoredom from her face and her adultery from between her breasts, Septuagint: Contend with your mother, contend, for she is not my wife and I am not her husband. And I will remove her whoredom from before my face and her adultery from between her breasts, Note:
Commentary:
The mother evidently is the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, and those being called upon to contend with her are the children, the individual members of the tribes. They had valid grounds for contending with their “mother,” condemning her unfaithfulness to YHWH. The call to “judge,” “condemn,” or “rebuke” her is intensified by the repetition of the imperative. Their “mother’s” record was one of idolatry from the start, with calf worship having been perpetuated by all the kings from the time of Jeroboam, the first monarch of the ten-tribe kingdom. The veneration of Baal and other fertility deities also became part of her sordid record. Therefore, YHWH did not recognize this “mother” as continuing in a covenant relationship with him, a relationship comparable to a marriage. She was not his wife nor was he her husband.
This “mother” had violated her covenant relationship, practicing whoredom (in the form of idolatry) before his face and her idolatrous acts were like that of an adulterous wife who allows another man to fondle her breasts. According to the reading of the Masoretic Text, the mother was to change her ways, refraining from whoredom and from exposing her breasts for adulterous purposes. The reading of the extant Septuagint, however, indicates that YHWH would take this action toward her, stopping it by punishing her like an unfaithful wife.
Masoretic Text: lest I strip her naked and expose her as on the day of her being born and appoint her as a wilderness and make her as a parched land and kill her with thirst. Septuagint: that I may strip her naked and reestablish her as on the day of her birth and appoint her as a wilderness and place her as a waterless land and kill her with thirst. Commentary:
The punishment YHWH would inflict upon the “mother” (the ten-tribe kingdom) would be like that imposed on an adulterous wife. She would be publicly humiliated, stripped of every vestige of dignity, and exposed in the naked state of a newborn baby. Her condition would come to be like that of a barren wilderness, devoid of any produce that could contribute to the enjoyment of life. In the state of a waterless land, she would not benefit from any relief comparable to refreshing rains. With nothing to alter the parched condition, she would be killed by thirst.
Masoretic Text: And to her sons I will not show mercy, for they are sons of whoredom. Septuagint: And to her children I will absolutely not show mercy, for they are children of whoredom. Note:
Commentary:
With the exception of the prophets and the few who heeded their admonition, the “sons,” “children,” or people of the ten-tribe kingdom proved to be just like their “mother.” YHWH, therefore, would not manifest mercy or pity toward them when executing his adverse judgment. By reason of their attachment to idolatry and the resultant breach of the covenant relationship with him, the “children” were guilty of whoredom and so are designated as “sons” or “children of whoredom.”
Masoretic Text: For whored has their mother, and shamed herself has the one conceiving them, for she said, “Let me go after my lovers, the givers of my food and my water, my wool and my linen, my oil and my drinks.” Septuagint: For whored has their mother, shamed herself has the one bearing them, for she said, “I will follow after my lovers, the ones giving me my bread and my water and my garments and my linen cloths and my oil and all that is appropriate for me.” Commentary:
The whoredom of the “mother” (the ten-tribe kingdom) was her illicit attachment to fertility deities, calf worship, and other gods and goddesses. As members of the ten-tribe kingdom, the Israelites individually were offspring of this “mother,” the one who could be spoken of as having “conceived them.” Her course was disgraceful, an adulterous breach of her covenant relationship with YHWH. Her “lovers” included the fertility deities. She went “after them” by venerating them, with the objective that they would grant fertility to flocks, herds, trees, and fields. This adulterous “mother” acknowledged these deities as the “givers” of food or bread and water, the wool and linen for making clothing, and the olive oil and wine (included in the broader term “drinks”). Masoretic Text: Therefore, see, I am the one barring your way with thorns, and I will wall up her wall, and her pathways she will not find. Septuagint: Therefore, see, I am hedging her way in with thorns, and I will wall up her ways, and her path she shall absolutely not find. Note:
.
Commentary:
The “way” by which the “mother” (the ten-tribe kingdom or, collectively, the people of the realm) pursued their lovers (gods and goddesses) would be barred as with thorns, an impenetrable barrier. Also, an obstructive wall would restrict the “mother’s” movement. It would be impossible for her to find any pathways to her “lovers.” When the people of the ten-tribe kingdom were taken into exile, they were forcibly deprived of engaging in idolatrous rites at the former sites. The locations where the people believed the various deities could be invoked for help became inaccessible to them. No pathway could they find that would give them access to the deities they had venerated, and no help would be forthcoming from such deities. The people found themselves in a confined condition, from which there was no escape.
Masoretic Text: And she will pursue her lovers and not overtake them, and she will seek them and not find them, and she will say, “Let me go and return to my husband, the first one, for better for me [it was] then than [it is] now.” Septuagint: And she will pursue her lovers and absolutely not overtake them, and she will seek them and absolutely not find them, and she will say, “I will go and return to my husband, the first one, because better for me [it] was then [than it is] now.” Note:
Commentary:
With her pathways blocked, apparently on account of the exile, the “mother” (the ten-tribe kingdom or, collectively, the people of the realm) would be unsuccessful in efforts to pursue or find her “lovers,” the gods and goddesses to whom she had become attached. Her pursuit would not overtake them, and her search would not find them. In her distress, they would not be within reach to provide any aid or relief. This desperate situation would prompt the “mother” to think about the past when her circumstances were far better. As a result, she would choose to return to YHWH to whom she was bound by a covenant relationship like that of a wife to her husband.
Masoretic Text: And she did not recognize that I gave her the grain and the wine and the oil, and silver I increased to her, and gold, [of which] they made [use] for Baal. Septuagint: And she did not recognize that I gave her the grain and the wine and the oil, and silver I increased to her, but she made [use of] the silver and the gold [for] Baal. Notes:
The Septuagint rendering is clearer than the reading of the Masoretic Text.
Faithful Israelites, including the prophets, considered false gods and the images by means of which they were represented as shameful things, and proper names that included the designation “baal” were at times changed to bósheth, meaning “shame.” (Compare 2 Samuel 2:8; 9:6 with 1 Chronicles 8:33, 34.) The Hebrew word bósheth is feminine gender, and this may explain why the Septuagint translator used the feminine article when referring to the false god Baal. (Hosea 2:8; 13:1)
Commentary:
The “mother” (the ten-tribe kingdom or, collectively, the people of the realm) did not “know,” recognize, or acknowledge YHWH as the Giver of the essential food products — grain, wine and olive oil. He also had made it possible for her to prosper, resulting in an increase of “silver.” Yet, the “mother” used the gifts from YHWH in a way that dishonored him, lavishing both silver and gold on the fertility god Baal. The precious metals would have been used to make images of the deity. Vessels and other cultic objects may also have been fashioned from gold and silver.
Masoretic Text: Therefore, I will withdraw and take my grain in its time and my wine in its season, and I will take away my wool and my linen for covering her nakedness. Septuagint: Therefore, I will withdraw and take away my grain according to its season and my wine in its time, and I will remove my garments and my linen cloths, not covering her shame. Commentary:
On account of having misused the gifts he had generously bestowed on the “mother,” YHWH would turn away from her and deprive her of the essentials for sustenance and covering. This would be by allowing the people to experience serious disruptions of agricultural operations from enemy invasions, unfavorable weather conditions, and insect infestations. So, in the “time” or “season” of harvest, the yield would be disappointing. Limited supplies of grain would lead to a serious lack of flour for baking the daily bread. In the “time” or “season” of the grape harvest, crops would be poor, greatly reducing the production of wine. Loss of sheep from enemy invasions, predators, and disease would cause a major reduction in wool for making clothing. With an insignificant flax harvest, the raw material for making linen would be scarce, affecting the amount of clothing that could be made.
Masoretic Text: And now I will uncover her shame before the eyes of her lovers, and no man will deliver her from my hand. Septuagint: And now I will uncover her impurity before her lovers, and no one will by any means deliver her out of my hand. Note:
Commentary:
YHWH would treat the “mother” like an adulterous wife, stripping her so as to expose her impurity, shame, or private parts. This would be before the “eyes” of her lovers, the deities who would be powerless to prevent this humiliating exposure and so are depicted as if having to look at the shocking spectacle. Absolutely no one would be able to effect a rescue from YHWH’s hand directed against her. The Assyrian military force proved to be the instrumentality for accomplishing this, bringing an end to the ten-tribe kingdom and forcibly taking the survivors of the conquest into exile.
Masoretic Text: And I will end all her exultation, her festival, her new moon and her sabbath and all her festal season. Septuagint: And I will turn away all her exultations, her festivals and her new moons and her sabbaths and all her assemblies. Note:
Commentary:
The “mother” would experience a reversal of fortunes. YHWH would bring an end to the rejoicing or exultation that accompanied her ritualistic festivities. “Festivals” could include all the festive occasions associated with calf worship and the veneration of Baal and other deities. On the day of the “new moon,” which marked the start of each month, the Israelites appear to have enjoyed themselves in feasting. (Compare 1 Samuel 20:5, 18, 24, 26.) Besides being a welcome time for rest and refreshment, the weekly sabbath was a day for rejoicing over accomplishments and results from the previous six days. In the ten-tribe kingdom, a harvest festival was observed annually in the eighth Jewish month (mid-October to mid-November). Jeroboam, the first monarch, instituted this observance as part of the cult of calf worship, doing so in imitation of the “festival of booths” celebrated in the two-tribe kingdom of Judah one month earlier. This festival was an occasion for a large “assembly” of Israelites at Bethel, one of the two official sites for calf worship. (Compare 1 Kings 12:32, 33.) Doubtless there were also other regular assemblies associated with idolatrous practices.
Masoretic Text: And I will devastate her vine and her fig tree about which she said, “They are the hire my lovers gave me,” and I will transform them into a forest and the animal[s] of the field will eat them. Septuagint: And I will destroy her vine and her fig trees about which she said, “These are my hire, which my lovers have given me,” and I will place them as a witness, and the beasts of the field and the birds of the sky and the creeping things of the land will devour them. Notes:
In the Masoretic Text, the singular for “animal” may be understood in the collective sense as meaning animals.
The Septuagint is an expanded text. Being placed as a witness, the grapevine and the fig trees, in the desolated land, would testify to the “mother’s” guilt and YHWH’s judgment against her for unfaithfulness.
Commentary:
The “mother” regarded the grapevine and the fig tree (therefore, also their produce) as hire from her lovers, the fertility deities which she venerated. Both the Hebrew and the Greek words for “hire” or “wages” denote the payment a prostitute receives for her services.
YHWH would deprive the “mother” of her “wages” that she wrongly attributed as having been bestowed on her by her “lovers.” In the fulfillment, YHWH allowed the Assyrian invaders to devastate the land, ruining grapevines and fig trees, at least some of which may have been cut down for siegeworks. While the Mosaic law did not permit Israelite warriors to cut down fruit-bearing trees, the Assyrian forces would have acted without any restraint. (Deuteronomy 20:19, 20) The devastated land would remain uncultivated and come to be like a “forest.” Wild animals, birds, and creeping things would feed on the yield of the neglected grapevines and fig trees.
Masoretic Text: “And I will visit [judgment] upon her the days of the Baals in which she burned incense to them and decked herself with her ring and her jewelry and went after her lovers, but me she forgot,” [is the] announcement of YHWH. Septuagint: “And I will take vengeance upon her the days of the Baals in which she burned incense to them and put on her earrings and her necklaces and went after her lovers, but me she forgot,” says the Lord. Notes:
The Hebrew term for “in which” could either apply to the days “on which” she burned incense or to the Baals “to which” she burned incense.
Both the Hebrew and the Greek words that could be understood to mean “burn incense” could also mean to “present offerings.”
Commentary:
The visitation would be a punitive one on account of the “days” or time the “mother” venerated the Baals, likely the Baals associated with various locations. As an act of worship, she presented offerings or burned incense. Like a prostitute, the mother is depicted as adorning herself with her ring (earrings, LXX) and jewelry (necklaces, LXX) and pursuing her lovers, the fertility deities to which she was ardently attached. YHWH, the One from whom she had received everything, however, the “mother” disregarded, forgetting him or totally putting him out of her mind.
Masoretic Text: Therefore, see, I will make her wander and bring her into the wilderness and speak to her heart. Septuagint: Therefore, see, I make her wander, and I will place her in a wilderness and speak to her heart. Notes:
Definitions for the Hebrew word patháh include “persuade,” “seduce,” “entice,” and “deceive.” These terms can also signify “to lead astray” or “to make wander.” Among the definitions in lexicons for the Greek word planáo, when used as an active verb, are “make wander,” “lead astray,” “mislead,” “seduce,” and “deceive.” In the Septuagint, the term is frequently used to mean “stray” or “wander” aimlessly or in confusion. (Genesis 21:14; 37:15; Exodus 14:3; 23:4; Deuteronomy 22:1; 27:18)
For the Hosea passage, translators have commonly chosen “lure” or “allure.” Based on this understanding of the Hebrew term, the possible meaning would be that YHWH “lured” the “mother” into the wilderness. The Contemporary English Version conveys this sense. “I, the LORD, will lure you into the desert and speak gently to you.” In view of the context and the fulfillment, however, it appears more likely that the reference is to making her wander. The “mother” did not choose to go into the wilderness because of having been enticed or persuaded to do so.
Commentary:
The “mother” had put YHWH out of her mind and chosen to attach herself to fertility deities. On this account, he would cause her to wander in confusion as if lost in a wilderness. The means by which the “mother” was placed or brought into the “wilderness” proved to be the Assyrian invaders who exiled the survivors of the ten-tribe kingdom. This state of exile proved to be comparable to wandering aimlessly and helplessly in an inhospitable wilderness. It was a painful and trialsome experience. While she found herself in this pitiable state, YHWH would appeal to her, speaking to her “heart.” The objective would be to move her to repentance and to return to him. In the fulfillment, the painful experience had a wholesome disciplinary effect on a remnant of the exiled people, reaching the “heart” or deep inner self.
Masoretic Text: And, from there, I will give to her her vineyards and the valley of Achor for an entrance of hope, and she will answer there as in the days of her youth and as in the day of her going up from the land of Egypt. Septuagint: And, from there, I will give to her her possessions, and the valley of Achor to open her understanding, and she will be humbled there according to the days of her youth and according to the days of her going up from the land of Egypt. Notes:
The reading of the Septuagint suggests that the Hebrew word for “vineyard” (kérem) may have had a less restrictive meaning and included “land” or a “field” suitable for a vineyard. One of the basic meanings for the Greek word ktéma is “possession,” and it can also mean “field.”
The difference between the Hebrew word defined as “hope” and the corresponding Greek term “understanding” is not as great as it might appear. An expectation or hope results from the use of one’s capacity for thought.
The Hebrew consonants for “humble,” “humiliate,” or “afflict” are the same as for the word “answer.” The vowel points in the Masoretic Text are for the word “answer,” whereas the Septuagint reading is representative of the vowels for “humble.” Against the backdrop of the experiences of the Israelites in the wilderness after their leaving Egypt, the word “humbled” does fit. As Moses told the Israelites, “He [YHWH] humbled you and let you hunger and fed you with manna.” (Deuteronomy 8:2 [3]; see also verse 15 [16].)
The reading of the Masoretic Text suggests that the “mother” would respond or answer favorably as in the days of youth. In Jeremiah 2:2, the initial response is represented in a favorable light. Viewed from the standpoint of their entire history in the wilderness upon leaving Egypt, however, the Israelites repeatedly rebelled. Consequently, the Septuagint may preserve the correct sense.
Commentary:
YHWH, in time, would deal favorably with the “mother,” the exiled people (as a collective whole) who would be in the distressing wilderness state. The implication is that those represented by the “mother” would repentantly return to YHWH while in the painful wilderness condition. During the period she would be “there” or in the “wilderness,” YHWH would give her “vineyards,” “fields,” or “possessions” that formerly belonged to her. The certainty of the “mother’s” being restored to her land is revealed by the fact that the giving takes place while she is in the “wilderness.” YHWH’s word is as sure as the reality that is promised.
In the “valley of Achor,” Achan and his family were put to death by stoning because of his flagrant violation of specific divine instruction. (Joshua 7:1-26) The name “Achor” means “trouble,” and Achan by his actions brought great trouble upon the Israelites (resulting in loss of life) and upon himself and his family. YHWH, through Hosea, promised a marvelous reversal. The valley that had signified “trouble” would prove to be the opening or entrance of hope, a desirable expectation that evidently related to the restoration of an approved relationship with YHWH as manifest in the “mother’s” being able to return to her land.
The reading of the Masoretic Text indicates that the “mother,” while still in the wilderness, would respond favorably as when she (Israel as a collective whole) was in her youth or infancy. This was when she made her exodus from Egypt. The sense conveyed by the Septuagint reading “humble” (instead of “answer”), however, does harmonize with what did occur during Israel’s wandering in the wilderness and also the experience of the “mother” while in the distressing wilderness state during the time of her exile.
Masoretic Text: “And it will be in that day,” [is the] announcement of YHWH, “you will call [me], ‘My husband,’ and you will not still call to me, ‘My Baal.’” Septuagint: “And it will be in that day,” says the Lord, “she will call me, ‘My husband,’ and she will not still call me ‘Baalim.’” Note:
Commentary:
In “that day,” when the relationship to YHWH would be restored and the time of exile would end, the “mother” (the people collectively) would express herself differently. In acknowledging herself as bound in a covenant relationship to YHWH as if married to him, she would call him her “husband.”
The name “Baal” signifies “Owner.” In view of the linkage of this designation to a fertility deity and the mother’s sordid record of unfaithfulness to YHWH and attachment to Baal worship, that name would never again pass her lips. The history of the Israelites who returned from exile confirms the fulfillment of these words. Never again did they engage in Baal worship, and never did they link the name of this fertility deity to YHWH.
Masoretic Text: And I will remove the names of the Baals from her mouth, and they will not still be remembered by their name. Septuagint: And I will remove the names of the Baalim out of her mouth, and by no means will their names be remembered anymore. Note:
Commentary:
As a consequence of the punitive discipline to which YHWH would submit the “mother,” she would cease to mention the names of the Baals, the fertility deities that had been linked to various sites in the land. In the fulfillment, YHWH used the Assyrians as his agent for inflicting punishment. This served to effect the removal of the names of the Baals from the “mother’s” mouth, never again to be mentioned in a worshipful way.
The Baals were not to continue to be remembered by “name.” All former attachments to the Baals would be completely obliterated. These local deities would be recognized for what they truly were — unrealities incapable of providing aid or benefits. Their names as objects of worship would be blotted out, completely wiped away from memory.
Masoretic Text: And, in that day, I will conclude with them a covenant, with the animal[s] of the field and the bird[s] of the skies and the creeping thing[s] of the ground, and bow and sword and war I will obliterate from the land, and I will make them lie down in safety. Septuagint: And, in that day, I will establish with them a covenant, with the beasts of the field and with the birds of the sky and with the creeping things of the land, and bow and sword and war I will obliterate from the land, and I will make you dwell in hope. Notes:
The Hebrew idiom for “conclude a covenant” is “cut a covenant” and evidently reflects the common means for establishing or ratifying a covenant. Sacrificial victims were cut in two, after which the parties to the covenant or agreement would pass between the pieces. (Compare Genesis 15:9-17; Jeremiah 34:18.) The implication would have been that a violation of the terms of the covenant or agreement would be deserving of the fate of the sacrificial victims.
In the Masoretic Text, “animal,” “bird,” and “creeping thing” are singular nouns, but evidently are to be understood in the collective sense as meaning animals, birds, and creeping things.
Both in Greek and in Hebrew, the terms rendered “obliterate” have the basic meaning of “break.”
The reading “hope” in the Septuagint may signify that the people would be assured of the fulfillment of their hope, which would include the enjoyment of security.
Commentary:
YHWH’s covenant with the people assured them that they would no longer have to face enemy invasions, with the resulting devastation of the land and the disruption of agricultural operations. The covenant included the beasts, birds, and creeping things. This indicates that harm would not come to the Israelites from these creatures as was often the case when war led to significant habitat changes. (Compare Deuteronomy 7:22; 2 Kings 17:26; Isaiah 7:24.) No longer would invading military forces successfully wield implements of war—bow and sword—against the Israelites. In that sense, the weapons and war itself would be broken, crushed, or obliterated. The people inhabiting the land would be able to enjoy a peaceful and secure life.
In view of the continuity of the true Israel (always by means of a believing remnant), these words found fulfillment among those who accepted Jesus as the promised Messiah. To them, the assurance of God’s Son applies: “I have given you authority to trample on snakes and scorpions and to overcome all the power of the enemy; nothing will harm you.” (Luke 10:19)
Masoretic Text: And I will espouse you to me for eternity, and I will espouse you to me in righteousness and in justice and in loyalty and in mercies. Septuagint: And I will espouse you to me for eternity, and I will espouse you to me in righteousness and in justice and in mercy and in compassion. Notes:
In Hebrew, the expression “for eternity” signifies a time without any set limit. The corresponding Greek expression denotes “into the age.”
The Hebrew term chésed conveys the thought of abiding loyalty, graciousness, and mercy. It is a compassionate concern that expresses itself in action. The corresponding term in the Septuagint means “mercy” or “pity.”
Commentary:
YHWH would accept the “mother” (the repentant people collectively after the period of punitive discipline), entering into the abiding intimate relationship of a husband with his wife. This relationship would endure, not leading to an eventual casting off or divorce. Righteousness, justice, loyalty (mercy, graciousness) and compassion would be the admirable qualities evident in the relationship. YHWH would always prove true to his covenant promises, never acting contrary thereto and thus revealing his righteousness or uprightness at all times. Never would his actions be arbitrary but would continually be based on what was just and fair. Because the “mother” would not be without weaknesses and failings, YHWH would deal mercifully with her. He would prove to be loyal. Moreover, his compassion for her would be prompted by deep love. (Again, the fulfillment of this promise applies to those who make up the real Israel.)
Masoretic Text: And I will espouse you to me in faithfulness, and you will know YHWH. Septuagint: And I will espouse you to me in faithfulness, and you will know the Lord. Commentary:
As one espoused to YHWH in “faithfulness” or “trustworthiness,” the “mother” is assured that the relationship would endure. This has been the experience of the true Israel throughout the centuries. YHWH has been faithful or true to his covenant promises. For the “mother” to “know” YHWH would mean enjoying an intimacy with him. It would include a full recognition of what that relationship involved, and this would be evident from conduct harmonizing therewith.
Masoretic Text: “And it will be in that day I will answer,” [is the] announcement of YHWH, “I will answer the skies, and they will answer the land, and the land will answer the grain and the wine and the oil, and they will answer Jezreel.” Septuagint: “And it will be in that day,” says [the] Lord, “I will respond to the sky, and the sky will respond to the land, and the land will respond to the grain and the wine and the oil, and they will respond to Jezreel.” Commentary:
“That day” refers to the time of restoration. The poetic portrayal represents an appeal that YHWH will answer. To flourish, grain, grapevines, and olive trees need nourishment from the soil, and sunshine, dew, and rain. On its own, the land cannot provide sunshine, dew, and rain. Therefore, it is personified as appealing to the sky. From the sky, the petition rises to the ultimate source of all blessings, YHWH.
The response to the appeal starts with YHWH and cycles through from the sky to the land and then to the grain, grapevines, and olive trees. Jezreel means “God sows” and appears to be representative of the people (as if sown by God) who have been restored to the land and with whom the petition originated. YHWH’s assurance is that the people’s appeal for grain, wine, and oil would be answered.
Masoretic Text: And I will sow her to me in the land, and I will show mercy to Lo-ruhamah, and I will say to Lo-ammi, “You are my people. ” And he will say, “My God.” Septuagint: And I will sow her to me upon the land, and I will show mercy to Not-Shown-Mercy, and I will say to Not-My-People, “You are my people.” And he will say, “Lord, you are my God.” Note:
Commentary:
The Hebrew word for “sow” is feminine. In the Septuagint, this suffix is rendered as the pronoun “her,” evidently referring to the “mother” (collectively designating the people who had been exiled). With the return of the repentant exiles, YHWH began “sowing” them in the land. Thus the depopulated land began to sprout with the returnees and their offspring. The people who had not been shown mercy (as represented by Lo-ruhamah) would be shown mercy upon repenting, being restored to YHWH’s favor and their land. The people whom YHWH had cast off on account of disloyalty to him (represented by Lo-ammi) but who would repent were assured of again being acknowledged by him as his people. As for the people represented by Lo-ammi (Not-My-People), they would acknowledge YHWH as “My God.”
Masoretic Text: And YHWH said to me, “Again go, love a woman, one loved by a lover, an adulteress, as YHWH has love for the sons of Israel, and they turn to other gods and [are] lovers of cakes of raisins.” Septuagint: And the Lord said to me, “Yet [again] go and love a woman loving bad and an adulteress, as God loves the sons of Israel, and they turn attention to foreign gods and are fond of cakes with raisins.” Note:
Commentary:
YHWH’s directive for Hosea to again love an adulterous woman evidently does not mean a woman other than Gomer. The prophet’s tragic domestic life served to illustrate YHWH’s love for Israel, and for Hosea to have attached himself to another adulterous woman would not have constituted a parallel situation.
Gomer apparently left Hosea and chose an adulterous course. As Gomer had been unfaithful to Hosea, the Israelites proved unfaithful to YHWH, violating the covenant relationship that bound them to him like a wife to her husband and attaching themselves to foreign deities. Still, YHWH loved them and left them with the opportunity of returning to their former relationship. The raisin cakes likely were used in idolatrous rituals and, therefore, the people are referred to as being fond of these cakes.
Masoretic Text: And I purchased her for myself for fifteen silver pieces and a homer of barley and a lethech of barley. Septuagint: And I hired her for myself for fifteen pieces of silver and a homer of barley and a vessel of wine. Note:
Commentary:
It appears that the adulterous Gomer’s situation deteriorated to the status of a slave. Hosea purchased her for 15 silver pieces (probably shekels) and a quantity of barley or barley and wine. A homer equals about 9.2 bushels. The price for a slave was thirty shekels, suggesting that the produce was worth fifteen shekels. (Exodus 21:32)
Masoretic Text: And I said to her, “Many days you will dwell with me. You will not whore, and you will not be to [another] man, and I also to you.” Septuagint: And I said to her, “Many days you will dwell with me and by no means whore nor should you be to another man, and I to you.” Notes:
In the Septuagint, the use of two different Greek words for “not” signifies “by no means,” with the second “not” serving as an intensifier.
Neither the Masoretic Text nor the Septuagint supply a verb to explain what Hosea’s relationship would be to Gomer. The meaning of “I to you” could be that Hosea would dwell with her as a faithful husband. The other possibility is that, just as she was not to be to another man, he would not be to her, refraining from resuming marital intimacies for “many days.” Both meanings are found in translations. “Then I told her, ‘You are to live with me many days; you must not be a prostitute or be intimate with any man, and I will live with you.’” (NIV) “And I said to her, ‘You must remain as mine for many days; you shall not play the whore, you shall not have intercourse with a man, nor I with you.’” (NRSV) “...and I stipulated with her, ‘In return, you are to go a long time without either fornicating or marrying; even I [shall not cohabit] with you.’” (Tanakh) The following words provide a basis for concluding that the reference is to Hosea’s not immediately resuming the former relationship. In verse 4, the expression “many days” parallels the “many days” during which Gomer would dwell with Hosea. This period of “many days,” in the case of the Israelites, did not prove to be a period distinguished by the full restoration of the former relationship with YHWH. This, according to verse 5, would follow the period of “many days.”
Commentary:
Hosea, upon purchasing Gomer, made it clear to her that, from then on, she would be residing with him for “many days.” During this time, she had to desist from her adulterous course, refraining from becoming intimate with any other man. During the indefinite period of “many days,” Hosea would be “to her.” Based on the parallel with Israel, the prophet appears to be saying that, for a time, he would not resume marital intimacies.
Masoretic Text: For the sons of Israel will dwell many days without a king, and without a prince, and without sacrifice, and without a pillar, and without an ephod and teraphim. Septuagint: For the sons of Israel will dwell many days not having a king, nor having a ruler, nor having sacrifice, nor having an altar, nor a priesthood nor revelations. Notes:
Unlike the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint does not mention any appendages of idolatry. Perhaps, because of the abhorrence for idolatry that had developed by the time the Septuagint was translated, editorial changes were made. If so, the editorial changes would have matched the situation during the exile. After the exile, however, the Israelites did have a functioning priesthood, the divinely outlined sacrificial arrangement, and an altar. Revelation by means of the Urim and Thummin did not exist.
The last word in the Septuagint is a form of délos, an adjective meaning “visible” or “clear.” The reference appears to be to the means through which things were made visible or were revealed. In Numbers 27:21; Deuteronomy 33:8 and 1 Samuel 28:6, the word délos is the rendering for the designation Urim. Likely, it would have been in this favorable sense that the Septuagint reading of Hosea 3:4 is to be understood.
Commentary:
Evidently the “many days” in the case of Israel parallel Gomer’s situation during the “many days” she would be living with Hosea. During this time, the circumstances would not be as they had been formerly. In the fulfillment, the people did not have an Israelite king nor an Israelite prince or ruler exercising authority independent of a foreign sovereign. No longer did the Israelites engage in the sacrificing associated with calf worship or the veneration of fertility deities. There was no priest to officiate at the centers of calf worship nor at sites where fertility deities or other gods had once been venerated. Sacred pillars, likely phallic symbols of Baal, did not exist. The Israelites did not use an ephod or priestly vestment in an idolatrous manner as they had, for example, in the days of Gideon. (Judges 8:27) Teraphim were images of deities, and these had formerly been consulted for omens. (Compare Judges 17:5; 18:14, 17, 20; 2 Kings 23:24; Ezekiel 21:21; Zechariah 10:2.) After the exile, though, the Israelites did not have teraphim.
Masoretic Text: Afterwards, the sons of Israel will return and seek YHWH their God and David their king, and they will be awed over YHWH and his good things at the end of the days. Septuagint: And after these things, the sons of Israel will return and seek the Lord their God and David their king, and they will be awed over the Lord and over his good things at the last of the days. Notes:
The Hebrew word for “good things” is singular, evidently in the collective sense, and can also mean “goodness.” In the Septuagint, the corresponding term is plural. Translations have variously rendered the Hebrew term as “goodness” (NRSV), “blessings” (NIV), and “bounty” (Tanakh).
The Hebrew word pachád can also mean “to be in dread” or “to tremble,” but this significance does not fit as well with the reference to “good things” or “goodness” as does “to be awed.” Translations vary in the meaning chosen. “They will come trembling to the LORD and to his blessings in the last days.” (NIV) “...they shall come in awe to the LORD and to his goodness in the latter days.” (NRSV)
Commentary:
After the period at the end of the days without their having what is enumerated in the previous verse, the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom would seek YHWH, turning repentantly to him and desiring to enjoy a good relationship with him. The former division into two kingdoms would cease, with members of the ten-tribe kingdom wanting to be united with members of the two-tribe kingdom under one king from the royal house of David.
Subsequent to the return from exile, no king of the house of David reigned from Jerusalem. In the fulfillment, however, this unity became possible when individuals accepted Jesus as the promised Messiah, the King from the house of David. The prophetic words revealed that this would not be a development immediately following the return from exile, for the reference is to the “last of the days” or the “end of the days.” Evidently this is the same period that is mentioned in the book of Joel, where it is linked with the outpouring of God’s spirit. (Joel 2:28, 29 [3:1, 2]) This prophecy began to be fulfilled ten days after Jesus’ ascension to heaven. Upon receiving God’s spirit, individuals were empowered to speak in foreign languages. (Acts 2:7-18)
Miracles accomplished through the operation of holy spirit included curing the lame and the paralyzed, healing the sick, and raising the dead. (Acts 3:6-10; 5:12-16; 8:6, 7; 9:32-41; 14:8-10; 19:11, 12) In view of what God’s spirit enabled the recipients to accomplish, they were indeed filled with awe over YHWH and over the “bounty” or “good things.” It could also be said that the miracles were an evidence of God’s “goodness” and gave rise to amazement and awe among those who witnessed them. Moreover, all the blessings that came to be enjoyed by the disciples of God’s Son because of their being God’s children were “good things” or an evidence of God’s “goodness” toward them and provided reasons for amazement, wonderment, or awe.
Masoretic Text: Hear the word of YHWH, sons of Israel, for YHWH [has] a case [against] the inhabitants of the land, for no truth, no loyalty, and no knowledge of God [are] in the land. Septuagint: Hear the word of the Lord, sons of Israel, for the Lord [has] a judgment against the inhabitants of the land, for neither truth nor mercy nor knowledge of God is in the land. Note:
Commentary:
The imperative “hear” or “listen” directed attention to the serious message YHWH conveyed through Hosea. Abundant evidence was at hand for a case against the people, a case that would terminate in an adverse judgment. In the land of the ten-tribe kingdom, the people generally lived in a divinely disapproved manner. Absent was “truth,” honesty, fidelity, or trustworthiness. A compassionate care or concern for or loyalty to fellow Israelites proved to be woefully lacking. The people did not “know” YHWH. This did not mean that they were unaware of the fact that YHWH was their God, but they did not accord him the reverential recognition as such. They conducted themselves in a way that was contrary to his revealed will and acted as if he did not exist and as if they were unaccountable to him for their attitudes, words, and actions.
Masoretic Text: Swearing and deceiving and murdering and stealing and committing of adultery spread out, and bloodshed touches bloodshed. Septuagint: Swearing and lying and murder and theft and adultery spread out in the land, and bloodshed upon bloodshed they commingle. Note:
Commentary:
In the ten-tribe kingdom, the people generally had become debased. No one could be trusted, as swearing to falsehoods and resorting to deception and lies were commonplace. Life was treated as cheap, and the property rights of others were trampled upon. Murder, theft, and adultery were committed with impunity.
The reference to blood “touching” blood may indicate that bloodshed gave rise to further bloodshed, with nothing to stop the murderous cycle. Another meaning would be that acts of bloodshed were quickly followed by other murders. The word meaning “commingle” (found in the Septuagint) suggests that the people were guilty of abundant acts of bloodshed and so combined them into one sordid record of violence.
Septuagint: Therefore, the land will mourn and dwindle with all those inhabiting it, with the beasts of the field and with the creeping things of the land, and with the birds of the sky, and the fishes of the sea will die.
Notes:
In the Masoretic Text, the singular for “animal” and “bird” is evidently to be understood in the collective sense as animals and birds.
The Septuagint adds “creeping things,” which would include “reptiles.”
Commentary:
As a consequence of the moral decay among the people, the land would be devastated, taking on a neglected or mournful appearance. In the fulfillment, YHWH used the Assyrians as his instrument for executing judgment upon the unfaithful people. The Assyrian forces ravaged the land, ruthlessly slaughtering the inhabitants, destroying the habitat of wild animals and birds, and polluting the waters. This meant that the number of wild animals and birds must have been decimated, and fish must have died in the polluted waters.
Masoretic Text: Yet let no man initiate a case and let no man reprove, for your people [are] like [those] disputing [with] a priest. Septuagint: Let no one condemn nor reprove anybody, for my people [are] like [those] speaking against a priest. Notes:
There is a measure of obscurity in both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint. Translators have conveyed two very different meanings in their renderings. “Yet let no one contend, and let none accuse, for with you is my contention, O priest.” (NRSV) “Yet let no one find fault, and let none offer reproof; for your people are like those who contend with the priest.” (NASB) In the next verse, “you” is singular and a judgment is expressed against a prophet. These appear to have been factors in the interpretive rendering that YHWH has a dispute with the priest (the implication being that the priest has failed to carry out his duties in a divinely approved manner). Neither the Masoretic Text nor the Septuagint, however, introduce a first person singular subject in the last phrase. Both are in agreement in referring to “people.” Therefore, the preferred rendering would be the one that retains the word “people,” and the rest of the verse should logically be rendered in harmony with the concluding portion.
In the Masoretic Text, the word “people” is followed by a second person singular suffix, meaning “your” and would refer to the prophet’s people. This would be reflective of the fact that YHWH no longer recognized them as his own. The Septuagint, however, reads “my people,” that is, YHWH’s people.
Commentary:
The majority of the Israelites in the ten-tribe kingdom had sunk to a level of moral decay that evidently precluded any possibility for a positive change. It would have been futile for anyone to lodge a complaint or voice a reproof. (Compare Proverbs 9:7, 8.) The degree of resistance to any efforts to encourage a change in attitude and action is indicated by likening the people to those speaking against or disputing with a priest. According to the law, the priest, in judicial matters, occupied the supreme position. His ruling was final. (Deuteronomy 17:8-13) Accordingly, disputing with the priest, speaking against him, or refusing to abide by the final decision in judicial matters constituted a serious form of rebellion that merited the severest punishment. The people of Hosea’s time are thus compared to defiant individuals having no regard for law and order.
Masoretic Text: And you will stumble in the day and also the prophet will stumble with you [at] night, and I will silence your mother. Septuagint: And you will stumble in the day, and also the prophet will stumble with you. To night I have likened your mother. Notes:
Extant manuscripts of the Septuagint have either the second person singular verb (“you will stumble”) or the third person singular (“he will stumble”). Since both the oldest extant Septuagint manuscript reading and the Masoretic Text are in agreement, “you will stumble” should probably be considered as the preferable reading.
The manner in which verse 4 is translated affects the reading of this verse. In the Tanakh, for example, the application is to the priest. “For this your people has a grievance against [you], O priest! So you shall stumble by day.” Note that this translation inserts “you” in brackets to create a correspondency with the “you” in verse 5. When, however, the word “people” is retained in the reading of verse 4, this addition is not needed. Therefore, the rendering that most closely follows the literal reading of verse 4 points to the words “you will stumble” (in verse 5) as applying to the people collectively.
The singular “prophet” is doubtless to be understood of the prophets collectively.
The Septuagint reading about the “mother” departs from the Masoretic Text. In being likened to “night,” the mother would be in total darkness, with no light to guide her out of the distress.
Commentary:
For the most part, the Israelites residing in the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom had forsaken YHWH. As a consequence, he left them without his help and guidance. Instead of enjoying the brightness of the day, the people would find themselves in the deplorable state of those groping in the dark, stumbling, falling, and injuring themselves seriously. Prophets who should have been calling the people to repentance, pointing to the way out of the darkness of the night, contributed to the moral decay. (Compare Micah 2:11.) Therefore, they would stumble, along with the people, to a calamitous fall. YHWH would cause the “mother,” the ten-tribe kingdom, to be silenced or to perish. This came about through his use of the Assyrian forces as his instrument for executing judgment.
Masoretic Text: My people have been silenced for lack of the knowledge; for you have rejected the knowledge, and I will reject you from serving as priest to me. And you have forgotten the law of your God. I will also forget your sons. Septuagint: My people have become like [those] not having knowledge; because you have rejected knowledge, I also will reject you so as not to serve as a priest to me. And you have forgotten the law of your God. I also will forget your children. Note:
Commentary:
The reason the Israelites had been “silenced” or had come to ruin was their failure to recognize YHWH as the true God and to conduct themselves accordingly. This is the specific knowledge or recognition that was missing among the people, and they had rejected it, turning their backs on YHWH and pursuing the worship of fertility gods and other deities. Therefore, YHWH did not permit any approach to him (as a priest would have had). The Israelites, if obedient, were promised divine acceptance as a “kingdom of priests.” (Exodus 19:5) Their unfaithful course, however, ruled out their being such.
The people had “forgotten” the law, meaning that they ignored it as if it were no part of their memory. Therefore, YHWH would forget the “sons” of the “mother” (collectively, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom). He would treat them as if they did not exist, leaving them without his help, protection, and guidance.
Masoretic Text: As they increased, so they sinned against me. I will change their glory into dishonor. Septuagint: According to their number, so they have sinned against me. I will establish their glory into dishonor. Note:
Commentary:
The people in the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel increased in number. This increase was also accompanied by an increase in power and prosperity during the reign of Jeroboam, the son of Jehoash. (Compare 2 Kings 13:3-6, 22, 23; 14:25-27.) In the account of 2 Kings, Jeroboam’s success is attributed to YHWH. Yet, despite the blessings the people came to enjoy, they did not turn repentantly to YHWH but continued to pile up a record of sin. Therefore, the glory they had come to possess (having been raised out of a state of suffering and adversity on account of Syrian aggression) would cease to exist. YHWH would change that “glory” or “dignity” to “disgrace.” In the fulfillment, YHWH used the Assyrian forces to inflict humiliating defeats on the ten-tribe kingdom, eventually leading to its end and the exile of the surviving people. (2 Kings 15:19-29; 17:3-6)
Masoretic Text: The sin of my people they eat, and upon their guilt they raise [their] soul. Septuagint: The sins of my people they will eat, and in their iniquities they will take their souls. Note:
Commentary:
In view of verse 9, the ones “eating” are evidently the priests. These would not be the Aaronic priests, but those involved in calf worship and other forms of idolatry. The sacrifices that the people offered, from which the priests received a portion, were, therefore, something sinful. Instead of being part of an arrangement that honored the only living God, YHWH, the sacrifices were a feature of an arrangement that served to venerate lifeless deities. Accordingly, from the iniquity of the people, the priests obtained their sustenance. From the people’s guilt or their unfaithfulness to YHWH, the priests were able to satisfy their desire or appetite. With their sustenance being linked to the sin of idolatry, the priests would have wanted the people to remain in a state of guilt.
Masoretic Text: And it will be like people, like priest, and I will appoint against him his ways, and his practices I will repay to him. Septuagint: And it will be as [with] the people, so also [with] the priest, and I will avenge upon him his ways, and his intrigues I will repay to him. Commentary:
The same judgment for unfaithfulness would befall the people and the “priest.” Evidently, “priest” is to be understood in the collective sense, designating all the priests who officiated at the two centers of calf worship and at other locations where lifeless deities were worshiped. The God-dishonoring ways would stand as a record against the priests. Their divinely disapproved practices would place them in line for punishment or the repayment which they deserved. YHWH would see to it that their ways would prove to be as a testimony against them and that they would be repaid for their faithless practices. The people would likewise suffer the adverse consequences for having pursued wayward ways and engaged in divinely disapproved acts.
Hosea 4:10.
Masoretic Text: And they will eat and not be satisfied. They will whore and not give birth, for they have left giving heed to YHWH. Septuagint: And they will eat and absolutely not be filled. They have whored and absolutely shall not prosper, for they have left giving heed to the Lord. Notes:
The Hebrew term for “give birth” basically means “break forth.”
In the Septuagint, intensification of “not” is revealed by using two distinct words for “not.” The same two words for “not” appear twice in this text, denoting “absolutely not.”
The last word in the Masoretic Text (shamár) is an infinitive having the basic meaning of “to keep,” “to watch,” and “to preserve.” This is also the basic sense of the corresponding Greek word phylásso. There is a measure of obscurity about the significance of the passage.
A number of translators have chosen to include the noun for “whoredom” from the next verse, and start the new sentence with “wine.” In the Masoretic Text, the conjunction “and” precedes “wine,” and it is possible that a new thought does begin with “and.” The New Revised Standard Version completes the thought of verse 10 with the words, “they have forsaken the LORD to devote themselves to whoredom.” Another possibility is that, with reference to watching, heeding, or paying attention, the people had left YHWH.
Commentary:
Both in the case of the people and the priests, their eating would not result in satisfaction. In view of the context, this eating was evidently linked to idolatrous practices, with the priests and people sharing in eating a portion of the sacrifices. No benefit would result from such eating, as it was sinful. The whoring would likely have involved ritualistic prostitution, the object being to induce the fertility deities to grant increase. (Compare Numbers 25:1, 2.) Despite their engaging in such whoredom, however, the desired aim would not be attained. Wombs would remain barren, with no babies “breaking” forth. This would be because the people had abandoned YHWH, giving no heed to his law.
Hosea 4:11.
Masoretic Text: Whoring and wine and sweet wine take away the heart. Septuagint: The heart of my people has received whoring and wine and drink. Note:
Commentary:
In view of the context, the drinking of wine and other alcoholic beverages, as in the case of prostitution, figured in the ritualistic practices. (Compare Amos 2:8.) Doubtless the word “heart” denotes the mind or understanding. Intoxicants dulled the senses. As a result, in the absence of the usual inhibitions, the people would have been more prone to engage in despicable practices, giving absolutely no thought to how YHWH regarded such degradation.
Hosea 4:12.
Masoretic Text: My people of their wood inquire, and their rod announces to them, for a spirit of whoredoms leads [them] astray, and they whore from [being] under their God. Septuagint: For signs they inquired, and by their rods [it was] announced to them. A spirit of whoredom has led them astray, and from their God they whored. Note:
Commentary:
Although the Israelites had strayed from him, YHWH, through Hosea, referred to them as “my people.” They were his people by virtue of the covenant relationship. By proving unfaithful to their covenant obligations, however, they revealed themselves as not being his people. Instead of looking to YHWH for guidance, the Israelites resorted to divination, making their inquiry of a mere piece of wood, evidently a wooden image. Whereas human instrumentalities would have been involved in divining with rods and interpreting the omens, the rod itself is represented as making the announcement.
By forsaking YHWH and attaching themselves to fertility gods and other deities, the people made themselves guilty of whoredoms, proving disloyal to the covenant relationship that bound them to YHWH as a wife to her husband. They had been seized by a spirit of whoredom, a powerful force or inclination that impelled them to stray from the divinely approved way that would have benefited them and to choose paths that would lead to confused wandering without any possibility of a desirable outcome. They rejected being “under” their God or submissive to him as a loyal wife to her husband and chose to whore.
Masoretic Text: Upon the tops of the mountains they sacrifice, and upon the hills they burn incense, beneath oak and poplar and terebinth, for good [is] their shade. Therefore, your daughters whore and your brides commit adultery. Septuagint: Upon the tops of the mountains they have sacrificed, and upon the hills they have made offerings, under oak and white popular and overshadowing tree, because good [they are] for [providing] covering. Therefore, your daughters will whore and your brides will commit adultery. Notes:
The Hebrew word qatár basically means “to cause to smoke,” which may signify to burn incense or to cause the smoke from an offering to rise.
There is uncertainty about the kinds of trees designated by the Hebrew and corresponding Greek words. Translators have commonly chosen “oak,” “poplar,” and “terebinth.” Based on a 2001 revision of Ludwig Koehler’s work, the words would be translated “big tree,” “storax tree,” and “massive tree.” Whereas the word dryós in the Septuagint can mean “oak,” it also has the broader meaning of “tree.” The term leúke, thought to designate the “white poplar,” is related to the word leukós, meaning “white.” Similarly, the Hebrew word (livnéh), understood to refer either to the popular or the storax tree, is drawn from a root meaning “white.”
Both the Hebrew and Greek words for “bride” can also mean “daughter-in-law” and “young wife.”
Commentary:
Mountain summits or the tops of hills commonly served as sites for the veneration of various deities. From these locations, smoke from incense or sacrifices would rise skyward. Under the pleasant shade of various trees, the worshipers would carry on their God-dishonoring ceremonies and rituals. There, among the trees, the daughters and brides, young wives, or daughters-in-law of Israelite men engaged in ceremonial prostitution, a degrading practice associated with the veneration of fertility deities.
Masoretic Text: I will not visit [judgment] upon your daughters when they whore and upon your brides when they commit adultery, [because the men] with the harlots slip away and with the cult prostitutes sacrifice, and the people [which] does not discern will be thrust away. Septuagint: And I will absolutely not visit [judgment] upon your daughters when they whore and upon your brides when they commit adultery, because also [the men] with the harlots become involved and with the consecrated ones they sacrifice, and the people which [is] considering being entangled with a harlot. Notes:
Regarding “bride,” see verse 13.
In the Septuagint, two distinct words for “not” serve to intensify the negative sense and denote “absolutely not,” “definitely not,” or “by no means.”
The reading of the last phrase is especially obscure in the extant manuscripts of the Septuagint and departs from the Masoretic Text. The words with which the Masoretic Text begins verse 15 (“though whoring”) apparently account for the concluding words (“with harlot”) of verse 14 in the Septuagint. Both the Hebrew and the Greek words for consider may also mean “discern.” The two different readings of Septuagint manuscripts could be rendered “which [is] considering being entangled with a harlot” or “which does not discern being entangled with a harlot.”
Commentary:
YHWH would not visit, for the purpose of executing a severe punishment, the daughters and brides, daughters-in-law, or young wives who had become involved in ceremonial prostitution (which also constituted adultery for engaged or married women). This is because YHWH considered the men as being more accountable. The men took the initiative in slipping away with harlots and were the active participants in rituals that included ceremonial prostitution and sacrifices. The people gave absolutely no thought to the serious consequences that could befall them for venerating fertility deities. They did not discern or consider that YHWH would thrust them away, abandoning them to suffer terribly from foreign aggression.
Masoretic Text: Although you, Israel, are whoring, let not Judah be guilty. And do not go to Gilgal, and do not ascend to Beth-aven, and do not swear by YHWH, the living [One]. Septuagint: But you, Israel, do not be ignorant, and, Judah, do not enter into Gilgal, and do not ascend to the house of On, and do not swear by the living Lord. Notes:
The initial two words in the Masoretic Text are “though whoring.” See verse 14 about why these words do not appear here in the Septuagint.
The Septuagint renders “Beth-aven” as “house of On.” This is because “Beth” means “house,” and a different vowel pointing changes “aven” to “On.”
According to the Septuagint reading, the admonition is directed to Judah. This, however, does not seem to be correct. It is highly unlikely that the people of the kingdom of Judah would travel to the northern part of the ten-tribe kingdom in order to engage in idolatrous worship. Aside from the reference to Judah not allowing itself to become guilty, the rest of the verse is apparently best understood as applying to Israel.
Translations generally render the last phrase as “do not swear, ‘As the LORD lives.’” (NRSV) The Tanakh, however, omits “living” but otherwise is closer to the literal reading, “And do not swear by the LORD.”
Commentary:
According to the Masoretic Text, Israel’s guilt is “whoring,” unfaithfulness to the covenant relationship that bound the people to YHWH as a wife is bound to her husband. The Septuagint reading, however, represents Israel as being without understanding or in a state of ignorance. That state would have been one of choice, for the majority in the northern kingdom of Israel refused to conduct themselves in a manner that revealed a recognition of YHWH and his will for them.
Through Hosea, YHWH urged Judah, the people of the two-tribe kingdom, to avoid becoming guilty in the manner of the Israelites in the northern ten-tribe kingdom. Apparently after this admonition involving Judah, the rest of the verse is directed to the people of Israel. They were not to frequent locations where impure worship was practiced. Gilgal, a city situated north of Bethel, had become a site for God-dishonoring worship. (Hosea 9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:4, 5) The name “Beth-aven” may be defined as “house of iniquity,” “house of deception,” “house of hurtfulness,” “house of disaster,” “house of nothingness,” or “house of trouble.” It appears that, in this context, the place is a designation for Bethel (“house of God”). Upon becoming a center for calf worship, Bethel ceased to be a “house of God” and was transformed into “Beth-aven,” a place of hurtfulness, iniquity, deception, nothingness, disaster, or trouble.
Sites devoted to idolatrous worship were not acceptable locations for swearing by the living God, YHWH. Any swearing in his name at these unholy sites would have been a profanation of his name. Therefore, the concluding injunction for the people is that they not swear there by YHWH, the One who lives.
Masoretic Text: As a heifer is stubborn, Israel has been stubborn. Now YHWH will pasture them like a lamb in an open space. Septuagint: For as a heifer rages, Israel has raged. Now the Lord will pasture them like a lamb in an open space. Notes:
The meaning of the second half of the verse is not readily apparent. This has resulted in a variety of renderings.
“How then can the LORD pasture them like lambs in a meadow?” (NIV) The implied answer to this question would be that YHWH could not do so on account of their stubbornness. While numerous modern translations have chosen the question form, it does not fit the literal reading of the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint.
“I, the LORD, cannot feed you like lambs in an open pasture.” (CEV) This rendering also does not agree with the reading of the Hebrew and Greek texts, neither of which include the word “not.”
“Therefore, the LORD will graze him on the range, like a sheep.” (Tanakh) This rendering reflects the consequence of Israel’s stubborn or rebellious disposition and fits both the reading of the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint.
Commentary:
Like a heifer that stubbornly resists a yoke, Israel rebelled, stubbornly refusing to be submissive to YHWH’s commands. As a consequence, the people would come to find themselves in a state like that of a lamb turned out to pasture in an open space. This could mean that, instead of being provided for (as is a heifer with fodder in a manger), the people of the ten-tribe kingdom would be left without YHWH’s help and would have to fend for themselves as best they could. A sole lamb would be in a precarious position in an open area, with no protection from beasts of prey. The period of exile proved to be such a perilous time, one during which the Israelites found themselves in a situation comparable to that of a helpless lamb.
Masoretic Text: Ephraim [is] joined to idols. Leave him alone. Septuagint: Ephraim [is] a companion of idols. He has positioned stumbling blocks for himself. Note:
Commentary:
As the dominant tribe of the northern ten tribes, Ephraim is representative of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. The majority of the people in the realm had chosen to abandon YHWH and, instead, joined themselves to or made themselves companions to idols. From the time the first king, Jeroboam of the tribe of Ephraim, instituted calf worship, idolatry became a way of life. The reference to leaving Ephraim alone may signify letting the people of the ten-tribe kingdom experience the bitter consequences from their forsaking YHWH and adopting idolatry. Based on the reading of the Septuagint, Ephraim, by making himself a companion of idols, had set up his own obstacles. These obstacles or stumbling blocks would cause him to experience a calamitous fall.
Masoretic Text: [After having] left off [from] their drink, they indeed loved to whore, whore. Disgrace [is] her shield. Septuagint: He chose the Canaanites. Whoring, they whored. In their insolence, they loved dishonor. Notes:
The Masoretic Text is obscure, and the very different (but more understandable) extant Septuagint text differs considerably. Translations also vary greatly in their renderings.
The Hebrew word magén basically means “shield” or “protection.” With specific reference to Hosea 4:18, the 2001 revision of Koehler’s work lists the term with a different vowel pointing and defines it as “gift,” that is, a “gift given in reciprocation.” The Tanakh has adopted this meaning. “They drink to excess—their liquor turns against them. They ‘love’ beyond measure—disgrace is the ‘gift.’”
Similarly, the revised Elberfelder Bibel (German) concludes the verse with the words, die Gegengabe dafür ist Schande (the reciprocal gift therefor is shame).
The designation “shield” can apply to a ruler who serves as a protector for his subjects. (Psalm 47:9 [10]) This significance is conveyed in the New International Version. “Even when their drinks are gone, they continue their prostitution; their rulers dearly love shameful ways.”
For the second half of the verse, a number of translations have followed the Septuagint. “When their carousing is over, they give themselves to harlotry; in their arrogance they love shame.” (NAB)
The Greek word phryagmatos (phryagma) means “snorting” or “neighing” and “insolence” or “pride.
Extant manuscripts of the Septuagint read, with reference to “insolence,” either “their” or “her.”
Commentary:
Drinking was associated with cultic rituals. (Amos 2:8) After the drinking ended, the men had relations with the women who prostituted themselves at the locations where the fertility deities were venerated. Through repetition of a form of the word for “whore,” both the Hebrew and the Greek texts indicate the extreme degree to which the men were addicted to this debased practice.
In the Septuagint, there is no mention of “drink.” It was Ephraim, representing the ten northern tribes of Israel, who had chosen the Canaanites. This could be understood of the people’s adopting debased Canaanite worship, which included drinking and ceremonial prostitution.
According to the Septuagint reading, the verb “loved” is linked to “dishonor,” which could point to the dishonorable practices associated with idolatry. This misdirected “love” had its root in insolence. The people proudly defied YHWH, turning their backs on him to pursue idolatry.
In the Masoretic Text, the verb for “loved” is followed by a term indicating emphasis. The verb is third person plural and, grammatically, would apply to the intensity of the men’s love for whoring. Such a significance, however, makes it difficult to understand the phrase (provided it is original), “Disgrace is her shield.” There is no immediate antecedent for “her shield.” Perhaps, based on much earlier references, it could be understood of the “mother’s shield.” It was to foreign deities that the “mother,” representative of the ten-tribe kingdom, looked as a protective shield. Such a “shield” was indeed a disgrace or something truly shameful.
Translators who have chosen the meaning of “ruler” have used “their” and the plural “rulers.” Their renderings basically indicate that especially the rulers loved the shame associated with idolatry. The New Jerusalem Bible, however, has retained “her” but uses the plural rulers. “Her rulers love their shameful way.”
Masoretic Text: A wind has bound her in its wings, and they will be ashamed of their sacrifices. Septuagint: Blast of a wind—you are in its wings, and they will be disgraced on account of their altars. Note:
Commentary:
The only link to “her” as the object of the “wind” is the much earlier reference to the “mother,” representative of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel or, collectively, the people of the realm. Against this “mother,” the violent wind would be directed.
The mention of “wings” in connection with the “wind” may be understood against the backdrop of occurrences in the natural world. Many female birds use their wings to encompass their offspring, providing protective covering. As if having encompassing wings, the wind surrounds everything in its path but not for protective purposes. In the fulfillment, the Assyrian forces, like a fierce wind or whirlwind, swept through the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom, leaving behind death and destruction and uprooting the surviving Israelites and carrying them away into exile.
Israelites who had engaged in idolatry would become ashamed of the offerings and the altars where they had sacrificed to deities they had desired to placate. The shame would arise from receiving no help or protection from the lifeless gods and goddesses. In the fulfillment, the people found themselves in a helpless state when facing ruthless Assyrian aggression. All the offerings the Israelites had made on the altars were then exposed as having been in vain, and the deities were shown up to be completely powerless.
Masoretic Text: Hear this, priests, and take heed, house of Israel; and house of the king, lend ears. For to you [is] the judgment, for a snare you were to Mizpah and a net spread over Tabor. Septuagint: Hear these [things], priests, and take heed, house of Israel; and house of the king, give ear. For to you is the judgment, because a snare you have become to the lookout and like a net spread out upon the Itabyrion, Notes:
Translators basically convey two very different meanings for the words “for to you is the judgment.” (1) The adverse judgment is directed against the priests, the house of Israel, and the royal house. “Hear this, O priests, pay attention, O house of Israel, O household of the king, give ear! It is you who are called to judgment.” (NAB) “Hear this, O priests! Give heed, O house of Israel! Listen, O house of the king! For the judgment pertains to you.” (NRSV) (2) Priests, the house of Israel, and the royal house were responsible to uphold justice. “Listen, you priests! Pay attention, Israel! Listen, you members of the royal family. Justice was your duty.” (CEV) “Hear this, O priests, attend, O House of Israel, and give ear, O royal house; for right conduct is your responsibility! (Tanakh) It does appear, however, that the words that follow present the reason for the judgment. This aspect would favor a rendering that warns of impending adverse judgment from YHWH.
The name “Mizpah” denotes “lookout” or “watchtower,” and this explains the reason for the reading of the Septuagint. In the Septuagint, the usual designation for “Tabor” is “Thabor.” This makes it difficult to determine why the name “Itabyrion” appears here.
Commentary:
The priests being addressed are not men of the house of Aaron, but men officiating at Dan and Bethel (the centers for calf worship in the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel) and at other sites where various deities were venerated. At times, the expression “house of Israel” denotes the representative members of the nation or those responsible for administering affairs. The serious sin with which this verse concludes does suggest that this is the case here. It does not appear that, collectively, all members of the ten-tribe kingdom would be spoken of as having become a snare to Mizpah and a net to Tabor. Seemingly, all—the priests, leading members of the realm, and the royal house—were being put on notice that YHWH’s adverse judgment would be visited upon them.
Mizpah and Tabor may have been prominent sites for idolatrous worship. Another possibility is that the two locations were representative of the entire ten-tribe kingdom, with Mizpah being representative of the area east of the Jordan and Tabor being representative of the territory west of the Jordan. Mizpah was probably the city in Gilead located south of the Jabbok. From the valley of Jezreel, Tabor, an isolated eminence, rises to a height of well over 1,800 feet above sea level.
The sense in which the priests, the leading members of the realm, and the royal house served as a snare and a net is not specifically stated. Probably this was by their active support of idolatry. The very ones responsible for directing the people to noble ends would thus have been guilty of making Mizpah into a snare and spreading a net over Tabor. Few Israelites escaped succumbing to the pressure to conform to the prevailing idolatrous spirit and the allurement to engage in idolatrous practices. Therefore, the coming of YHWH’s adverse judgment was a certainty.
Masoretic Text: And [in] slaughtering the revolters have gone deep. And I [administer] discipline to all of them. Septuagint: which the ones ensnaring the prey have fastened. But I [am] your discipliner. Notes:
In the Masoretic Text, the first part of the verse is somewhat obscure. The result has been a variety of renderings, including ones based on conjectural emendations.
“...and a pit dug deep in Shittim” (NRSV) Based on an emendation, this reading depicts means for capturing victims at a third center devoted to idolatrous worship. Similar is the paraphrase, “At the place of worship you were a treacherous pit.” (CEV)
“In their perversity they have sunk into wickedness, and I am rejected by them all.” (NAB) This rendering basically is a rewrite of the Masoretic Text.
The Tanakh rendering is closer to the present Masoretic Text but includes interpretive elements. “For when trappers dug deep pitfalls, I was the only reprover of them all.”
With and without interpretive elements, a number of translations have maintained the basic wording of the Masoretic Text. “The rebels are deep in slaughter.” (NIV, NJB) Die Abtrünnigen schlachten im Verborgenen (The revolters slaughter in secret). (Schlachter, German)
Commentary:
The “revolters” are evidently those who rebelled against YHWH, turning their backs on him to pursue idolatry. Murder was one of the grievous sins that appears to have become common in the ten-tribe kingdom. (Hosea 4:2; 6:9) Possibly the slaughtering has reference to “murder,” and “going deep” could express the extreme depravity to which the guilty ones had sunk. If, however, the closer link is to idolatry, the phrase about “slaughtering” could point to the rebels’ “deep” or extensive involvement in “slaughtering” animals for sacrifice to lifeless deities. Also included could have been the abhorrent practice of child sacrifice. (Compare Ezekiel 23:36-39.)
According to the reading of the Septuagint, the net spread over Tabor had been fastened by those ensnaring the prey. Those caught in the “net” would have been all who became involved in idolatrous practices. The most powerful and influential members of the ten-tribe kingdom gave full support to idolatry and so were responsible for firmly fixing the ensnaring net that kept the deluded people in the state of helpless prey.
The Masoretic Text and the Septuagint convey the same meaning for the remainder of this verse. YHWH is the discipliner of his people. As such, he would take decisive action against the guilty ones.
Masoretic Text: I know Ephraim, and Israel is not concealed from me. For now you have whored, Ephraim; Israel is polluted. Septuagint: I have known Ephraim, and Israel is not absent from me. For now Ephraim has whored; Israel has been polluted. Note:
Commentary:
Ephraim and Israel are parallel designations, with Ephraim (as the dominant tribe) representing Israel or the ten tribes of the northern kingdom. YHWH had complete knowledge about Ephraim’s or the people’s attitudes, words, and actions. Nothing about Israel was hidden from God’s penetrating vision. Through involvement in idolatry, Ephraim (the people of the ten-tribe kingdom collectively) had whored, proving unfaithful to the covenant relationship with YHWH. Instead of being clean from God’s standpoint, Israel was defiled or polluted.
Masoretic Text: Their practices do not permit them to return to their God, for a spirit of whoredom [is] in their midst, and YHWH they do not know. Septuagint: They have not given their deliberations to return to their God, for a spirit of whoredom is in them, but the Lord they have not known. Note:
Commentary:
As a people, the Israelites were unwilling to change their ways. They were so steeped in their idolatrous practices and the debauchery associated therewith that they simply could not repentantly return to YHWH and conform their lives to his upright ways. A spirit of whoredom (a dominant inclination to pursue the worship of fertility gods and others deities) had taken possession of them. They did not “know” YHWH in the sense that they did not acknowledge their accountability to him and conduct themselves accordingly. They acted as if YHWH did not exist.
Masoretic Text: And the pride of Israel testifies to his face, and Israel and Ephraim will stumble in their iniquity; Judah also will stumble with them. Septuagint: And the arrogance of Israel will be humbled to his face, and Israel and Ephraim will stumble in their iniquities, and Judah will also stumble with them. Note:
Commentary:
In view of the context, the “pride,” “insolence,” or “arrogance” of Israel (collectively, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom) likely relates to their stubbornly refusing to humble themselves, turning a deaf ear to the appeals YHWH directed to them through his prophets, and giving not the slightest consideration to repentance so as to regain a proper relationship with YHWH their God. According to the reading of the Masoretic Text, this pride served as a testimony to Israel, a testimony that was right in front of their face. The expression “to his face” could also be understood to mean “against Israel,” which is the sense conveyed in numerous translations. According to the Septuagint reading, the pride of Israel would be humbled or abased before “his face” or before the people’s eyes.
Israel (the ten northern tribes) and Ephraim (the dominant tribe of the ten-tribe kingdom and often representing the entire realm) would, on account of their iniquities (their flagrant violations of God’s commands), stagger, weaken, or stumble. Theirs would prove to be a serious crash. This did occur when the Assyrian forces invaded and devastated the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom. Judah also experienced stumbling, as the Assyrians wreaked havoc in the two-tribe kingdom. (2 Kings 15:19, 20, 29; 16:7-18; 17:3-6; 18:13-15)
Masoretic Text: With their flock and with their herd, they will go to seek YHWH, but they will not find [him]. He has withdrawn from them. Septuagint: With sheep and calves, they will go to seek the Lord and definitely not find him, for he has turned away from them. Notes:
While the Septuagint rendering is “sheep,” the term in the Masoretic Text denotes “flock,” including both sheep and goats. Similarly, the Septuagint has the more specific term “calves,” whereas the corresponding word in the Masoretic Text means “herd” or “cattle.”
The two distinct words for “not” in the Septuagint express intensity and denote “by no means,” “absolutely not,” or “definitely not.”
Commentary:
The ones seeking YHWH are not specifically identified. Both the people of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah could be included. Based on the immediate antecedent in the previous verse, however, the reference would be to the people of Judah. This would also agree with the later statement (Hosea 7:10) that the people of Israel had not sought YHWH.
Like the Israelites in the ten-tribe kingdom, the people of the two-tribe kingdom of Judah had seriously failed to live up to their covenant obligations. YHWH, therefore, could not look with any favor upon their offerings. Although the people came with sheep, goats, and cattle to present as sacrifices at the temple in Jerusalem, this was but an empty ritual. Their attempt to “seek” YHWH, wanting his help, favor, and protection, was insincere. It was not accompanied by conduct that he approved. (Isaiah 1:11-17) As a result, he would remain hidden to them or impossible for them to find. YHWH would simply not be there for them in their time of need. As he had withdrawn or turned aside from the people, they would be left without his aid, blessing, and protection.
Masoretic Text: Against YHWH they have acted treacherously, for they have borne alien sons. Now the new moon will consume them with their portions. Septuagint: For they have forsaken the Lord, for alien children have been born to them. Now blight will consume them and their portions. Notes:
The reading of the Masoretic Text is obscure, requiring the introduction of interpretive elements in an effort to convey something meaningful. The Hebrew word chódesh means either “new moon” or “month,” and the Hebrew term chéleq denotes “portion,” “share” (Genesis 14:24; Deuteronomy 18:8; 1 Samuel 30:24), or a “tract” or portion of land, particularly a hereditary possession. (Joshua 18:5-9) In the Septuagint, the corresponding term for chéleq is kléros, meaning “share,” “portion,” “inheritance,” or “tract” of land.
Based on the meanings “month” and “tract” of land, a number of translations interpretively render the second part of the verse as meaning that the lands or possessions of the people would be destroyed within a short time. “So now they and their lands will soon be destroyed.” (GNT) Darum werden sie in kürzester Zeit vernichtet— mit allem, was ihnen gehört. (Therefore, they will soon be destroyed—with everything that belongs to them.) (German, Hoffnung für alle)
If, however, the meanings “new moon” and “portion” (as a “portion” of food) are retained, a very different significance is possible. Ihre Opferfeiern am Neumondstag bringen ihnen nicht Erntesegen, sondern Vernichtung, ihnen und ihren Feldern! (Their sacrificial festivals on the day of the new moon do not bring them a harvest blessing, but destruction, to them and their fields!) (German, Gute Nachricht Bibel)
Instead of “new moon” or “month,” the Septuagint reads erysíbe, meaning “blight” or “mildew.” It appears that the German Einheitsübersetzung somewhat follows the rendering of the Septuagint. Nun frisst ein glühender Wind ihren ererbten Besitz. (Now a scorching wind consumes their inherited possession.)
In the following commentary portion, a highly interpretive explanation (involving “new moon” and “portion”) is presented.
Commentary:
The people of both the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah had acted treacherously, forsaking YHWH and adopting idolatrous practices. In view of what follows, however, the reference may more specifically apply to the Israelites in the northern realm. Instead of instructing their children to be devoted to YHWH, idolatrous parents obviously failed to do so. Therefore, YHWH could not acknowledge these “sons” or “children” as being his. They did not “know” or recognize him as their God and so proved to be alien sons or children. In this respect, these children were just like the offspring of non-Israelite peoples who had never been in a covenant relationship with YHWH.
He could not have looked approvingly upon any observance of a new moon festival. The people’s doing so and engaging in joyous feasting would have merited YHWH’s adverse judgment, for it was not done to his praise and honor. Thus, instead of their consuming their portions on the day of the new moon with benefit to themselves, their God-dishonoring observance would bring upon them God’s consuming wrath. They and their portions would be consumed at the time for the execution of divine judgment.
Masoretic Text: Blow a horn in Gibeah, a trumpet in Ramah. Raise a battle cry at Beth-aven; after you, Benjamin. Septuagint: Trumpet a trumpet upon the hills; sound upon the heights. Herald in the house of On. Benjamin became confounded. Notes:
The Hebrew may also be understood as follows: Blow a horn on the hill, a trumpet on the height. Raise a battle cry at Beth-aven; after you, Benjamin.
The Septuagint does not render Gibeah and Ramah as place names, but the Vulgate does. Like the Vulgate, other translations commonly use the place names.
Commentary:
The “horn” or shofar was a ram’s-horn trumpet. Other “trumpets” were fashioned from metal and consisted of a mouthpiece and a narrow tube that flared out at the end. In times of war, both the “horn” and the “trumpet” served as signaling instruments.
Ancient Ramah has been linked to a site five miles north of Jerusalem and two miles north of what is believed to be the location of ancient Gibeah. Beth-aven (as in Hosea 4:15, which see for comments) probably was Bethel, the center of calf worship situated on the border of the territory of Benjamin.
Hosea provides no indication about the time and circumstances involving the various locations he mentions. If the ancient cities have been correctly identified, they are listed from south to north. This would suggest that the military action started in the south and moved northward. During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah, Syrian and Israelite forces joined in an attack against the two-tribe kingdom, administering a humiliating defeat but not succeeding in capturing Jerusalem and removing Ahaz as king. (2 Kings 16:5; 2 Chronicles 28:5-7; Isaiah 7:1-7) Possibly the reference in Hosea alludes to a Judean counteroffensive against the invaders. The blowing of the horn and the trumpet and the raising of a battle cry would then have been part of the counteroffensive in the territory of Benjamin.
The words “after Benjamin” may be understood to mean that the invading forces were advancing to or through the territory of that tribe. This would agree with the Septuagint reading about Benjamin being “confounded” or “astonished.”
Masoretic Text: In the day of reproof, Ephraim will become a waste. Among the tribes of Israel, I make known what is trustworthy. Septuagint: In the days of reproof, Ephraim has become a devastation. Among the tribes of Israel, I have shown trustworthy things. Note:
Commentary:
The “day of reproof” evidently denotes the time YHWH would take punitive action against Ephraim, the dominant tribe of the ten-tribe kingdom and commonly representing the entire realm. On account of the unfaithfulness of “Ephraim,” YHWH used the Assyrians as his instrument to inflict severe punishment. That punishment included the devastation of the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom during the Assyrian invasions and the exile of the surviving Israelites.
To the tribes of Israel in both kingdoms, YHWH revealed what is trustworthy. Through his prophets he announced the warning of impending calamity on account of the people’s unfaithfulness. Upon seeing YHWH’s word fulfilled, the people who had disregarded the dependable message proclaimed by the prophets would have been forced to recognize that it had indeed been trustworthy.
Masoretic Text: The princes of Judah have become like those who move back a boundary. Upon them, I will pour out my rage like water. Septuagint: The rulers of Judah have become like those who change boundaries. Upon them, I will pour out my assault like water. Notes:
The Hebrew word for “water” is plural, suggesting an abundance of water. In the Septuagint, however, “water” is singular.
The Greek word corresponding to the Hebrew term for “fury” or “rage” is hórmema, which expression can mean “assault,” “attack,” “impulse,” “onrush,” and “violent onset or rush.”
Commentary:
God’s law to Israel specifically prohibited the moving of boundary marks, as that would have meant stealing another person’s land. (Deuteronomy 19:14; 27:17) Judean princes or rulers in Hosea’s time, however, were corrupt. They attained their base objectives through lawless means comparable to the moving back of a boundary. This did not escape the notice of YHWH who, through Hosea, announced that these rulers would be submitted to the full brunt of his fury. His wrath would flow against them just as when an abundance of water is poured out.
Masoretic Text: Ephraim is oppressed; crushed [in] judgment, for he undertook to go after the commandment. Septuagint: Ephraim has oppressed his opponent. He has trampled judgment, for he started to go after vanities. Notes:
Most translations represent Ephraim as being oppressed and deprived of his rights and not (as does the Septuagint) as being the oppressor and the one trampling judgment. Examples are: “Ephraim is defrauded, robbed of redress.” (Tanakh) “Ephraim is oppressed, crushed in judgment.” (NRSV) “Ephraim is oppressed, trampled in judgment.” (NIV)
Other translations represent the judgment as being from God on account of idolatry—“broken by my judgment because they are determined to worship idols.” (NLT)
The New American Bible uses a question that is followed by a negative response. “Is Ephraim maltreated, his rights violated? No, he has willingly gone after filth!”
Commentary:
The marked difference in the reading of the Masoretic Text and the rendering of the Septuagint makes any explanation of this verse conjectural.
If Ephraim, the dominant tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel and representing the entire realm, is the oppressor and the one trampling upon judgment or justice, the identify of the opponent would need to be established. Historically, in the time of Hosea, Ephraim fought against the two-tribe kingdom of Judah. The Greek word meaning “oppress” (katadynasteúo) can also be defined as “prevail over,” “conquer,” “exploit,” and “dominate.” Based on the record preserved in 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles, “Ephraim” did triumph over the kingdom of Judah, administering a humiliating defeat. (2 Kings 16:5; 2 Chronicles 28:5-15; Isaiah 7:1)
In the realm of the ten-tribe kingdom, injustices were common. Especially the rights of the disadvantaged were repeatedly trampled upon. (Amos 2:6-8; 8:4-6)
Both the Septuagint and the Targum are in agreement that “Ephraim” went after “vanities.” This is probably to be understood of the pursuit of worthless idols. (Compare Jeremiah 2:5; 10:14, 15; 16:19; 51:17, 18.) In this case, numerous translators have departed from the reading of the Masoretic Text. Instead of “commandment,” they use “idols” (NIV), “filth” (NAB), “useless idols” (CEV), and “futility” (Tanakh).
The reading of the Masoretic Text represents “Ephraim” as the one oppressed. Historically, this did occur when the ten-tribe kingdom came under Assyrian control and experienced repeated Assyrian invasions, terminating in the conquest of the capital Samaria and the exile of the surviving Israelites. (2 Kings 15:19, 20, 29; 17:4-6; 1 Chronicles 5:4-6, 26) Under foreign domination, the people would definitely have had their rights trampled upon.
The phrase about going “after the commandment” (if the original reading) must, according to the context, be regarded as a sinful act. It serves to explain the reason for Ephraim’s being oppressed. Therefore, the “commandment” would have to be one originating from a human source and violating God’s law. This could refer to the royal endorsement of calf worship at the cities of Dan and Bethel. Jeroboam, the first monarch of the ten-tribe kingdom, did tell his subjects: “You have been going up to Jerusalem long enough. This is your god, O Israel, who brought you up from the land of Egypt!” (1 Kings 12:28, Tanakh) The word of the king generally would have been regarded as having the force of a commandment. (Ecclesiastes 8:4)
Masoretic Text: And I [am] like a moth to Ephraim, and like rottenness to the house of Judah. Septuagint: And I [am] like trouble to Ephraim, and like a goad to the house of Judah. Notes:
The Hebrew term ‘ash has commonly been defined as meaning “moth,” which is also the significance of the Latin term tinea (additionally, applying to any “gnawing worm”) appearing in the Vulgate. A 2001 revision of Koehler’s work, however, provides the definition “pus,” and this is the rendering (Eiter) found in some modern German translations. (Revised Elberfelder; Einheitsübersetzung) The Septuagint reading taraché does not agree with either definition of the Hebrew word. The Greek term can mean “trouble,” “disturbance,” “tumult,” “vexation,” “rebellion,” “commotion,” “riot,” and “disquietude.”
Both the Hebrew word raqáv and the Latin term (in the Vulgate) putredo mean “rottenness” or “decay.” In the Septuagint, though, the corresponding term kéntron denotes “goad,” “prod,” or “sting.”
Based on the Septuagint rendering, YHWH was the one who brought trouble upon Ephraim and, like a goad, pricked the house of Judah. This would have been by allowing them to experience oppression from foreign powers on account of their unfaithfulness.
Commentary:
“Ephraim” represents the northern ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, and the house of Judah represents the southern two-tribe kingdom.
By what he permitted to befall the ten-tribe kingdom, YHWH proved to be like a moth to Ephraim. This apparently denotes a moth in the destructive larval stage when, for example, it feeds on a woolen garment. Progressively, the garment is ruined. Likewise, the adverse judgments YHWH allowed to befall the Israelites from the Assyrians progressively weakened the realm, finally leading to the destruction of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel.
The rottenness may refer to damage to wood from worms or grubs. In this case also, the damage to wood is progressive. Because of unfaithfulness, the house of Judah, by divine permission, was subjected to enemy invasions that progressively led to its decline and terminated in the end of the kingdom of Judah and the exile of many of the survivors.
Masoretic Text: And Ephraim saw his illness and Judah his sore. And Ephraim went to Assyria and sent to a king, Jareb, and he will not be able to heal you nor cure your sore. Septuagint: And Ephraim saw his illness and Judah his pain, and Ephraim went to the Assyrians and sent ambassadors to King Jarim, and he was not able to heal you, and pain will definitely not cease for you. Notes:
The Septuagint reads “Jarim,” and the Masoretic Text can be transliterated as “Jareb.” (NASB, NJB, Luther 1984 revised [German], revised Elberfelder [German]) No Assyrian monarch, however, is known to have been so named. Numerous translations have chosen to render the Hebrew designation according to possible meanings, resulting in a variety of renderings—“great king” (NAB), “mighty king” (CEV), “patron king” (Tanakh; a footnote links the designation with a verb meaning “to champion, uphold the cause of”), “a king who will contend” (NRSV, footnote, but “great king” in the main text), and “King Contentious.” (Margolis) The term in the Vulgate is a form of ultor, meaning “revenger” or “avenger.” A 2001 revision of Koehler’s work indicates that the meaning “the Great One” is based on a linkage with Ugaritic. The other suggested meaning is “King Squabbler.” The Brown-Driver-Briggs lexicon of 1906 suggests “one who contends” as a possible meaning.
The use of the two distinct words for “not” in the Septuagint serve to intensify and convey the meaning of “absolutely not,” “by no means,” and “definitely not.”
Commentary:
Ephraim (representative of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel or, collectively, the people of the realm), upon recognizing his sickly or weakened condition, turned to powerful Assyria for help. Historically, this could relate to the time of Menahem or Hoshea. When Assyria invaded the ten-tribe kingdom, King Menahem made an agreement with the king of Assyria for his aid in securing the kingship. (2 Kings 15:19, 20) Later, during the rule of Pekah who had seized the throne after killing Menahem’s successor Pekahiah, Hoshea conspired against Pekah, assassinated him, and usurped the throne. (2 Kings 15:30) In order to secure his position as monarch, however, Hoshea seems to have solicited the aid of Tiglath-pileser III. An Assyrian inscription specifically relates to developments in the ten-tribe kingdom and the role of Tiglath-pileser III. The inscription states: “They overthrew their king Pekah (Pa-qa-ha) and I placed Hoshea (A-ú-si-’) as king over them.”
YHWH’s word, through Hosea, was that the Assyrian monarch would not provide a cure for the ailing realm that had previously been ravaged by Assyrian invasions. This was unerringly fulfilled. During the reign of Shalmaneser V, the successor of Tiglath-pileser III, Hoshea decided to refuse paying the demanded annual tribute and turned to Egypt for aid against Assyria. In retaliation, Shalmaneser V invaded the ten-tribe kingdom, placed Hoshea in confinement, and began the siege of Samaria. With the fall of Samaria after a three-year siege, the ten-tribe kingdom came to an end. (2 King 17:3-6; 18:9-12)
The focus of this verse basically is “Ephraim,” giving rise to the conjecture that “Judah” should be emended to read “Israel.” Such an emendation, though, would not have any support from the Septuagint nor the Vulgate and so would have little to commend it. The first half of this verse apparently parallels the preceding verse, and the same parallel of Israel and Judah is found in verse 14. Both “Ephraim” and “Judah” became painfully aware of their serious plight, and both failed in seeking the only dependable source of aid, YHWH, and enlisted the help of Assyria, to their injury. (2 Kings 16:7-9)
Masoretic Text: For I am like a lion to Ephraim and like a young lion to the house of Judah. I, I will rend and depart. I will carry away, and [there will be no] rescuing. Septuagint: For I am like a panther to Ephraim and like a lion to the house of Judah, and I will snatch away and depart, and take away, and no one will [perform any] rescuing. Commentary:
YHWH would permit unfaithful Ephraim (representative of the northern ten-tribe kingdom of Israel) and the disloyal house of Judah (representative of the southern two-tribe kingdom) to experience ruthless, beastly treatment from invading enemy forces. In this way, he would prove to be like a ferocious lion. The result would be a vicious tearing to pieces. Upon the departure of the invaders, only the tragic evidence of violent deadly struggles and devastation would remain. Humiliated survivors would be forcibly dragged into exile, comparable to the manner in which a lion drags away parts of the kill. No hope would there be for any kind of rescue from or mitigation of the beastly assault and its horrific consequences.
Masoretic Text: I will depart. I will return to my place until they [finish bearing their] guilt and seek my face. In their distress, they will look for me. Septuagint: I will depart and return to my place until they be removed [from sight], and they will seek my face. In their distress, they will eagerly seek me, saying: Notes:
The Hebrew word ’ashám basically means “be guilty” or “offend,” but the context requires another significance. Translators convey the sense as being “pay for their guilt” (NAB) or “acknowledge” (NRSV), “admit” (NIV), or “realize” (Tanakh) their guilt. In view of other prophecies indicating the passage of a specific period, “bear” or “pay for” appears to be the preferable significance. (Compare Jeremiah 24:4-6; 25:8-14; 29:4-14; Daniel 9:2.)
In the Septuagint, the word rendered “seek” in the second occurrence is a form of the verb orthrízo. This term basically signifies “rise early” and, in this context, is understood to mean “seek,” especially doing so eagerly.
Commentary:
On account of the people’s unfaithfulness, YHWH would withdraw his help and protection. His presence would cease to be with the people. In this way, he would depart from them, returning to his “place,” the invisible realm. After the period of corrective punishment ended, the people would seek YHWH’s face or YHWH himself, changing their wayward course and repentantly desiring a good relationship with him. Their distressing circumstances would have a beneficial effect, making them realize the seriousness of their sins and motivating them to want to return to YHWH.
Hosea 6:1.
Masoretic Text: Come and let us return to YHWH, for he has torn and he will heal us. He has stricken [us] and he will bind us up. Septuagint: Let us go and return to the Lord our God, for he has torn and he will heal us. He will strike [us] and he will bind us up. Commentary:
Hosea represents the repentant people as resolving to return to YHWH, confident that the punitive discipline would end and the time of healing and recovery would begin. The tearing, ripping, or snatching away may allude to the act of a predator that tears its prey. At the hands of ruthless invading forces, the Israelites, by divine permission, experienced treatment comparable to being torn by a beast. This, however, would be followed by YHWH’s turning his favorable attention to his people, leading to their healing. The Israelites had been stricken or severely wounded by foreign aggressors. While this had occurred by his permission on account of the people’s unfaithfulness, YHWH would bind up their wounds, promoting healing and recovery.
Masoretic Text: He will enliven us after two days. On the third day, he will raise us, and we will live before his face. Septuagint: He will heal us after two days. On the third day, we will rise and live before him. Note:
In the Septuagint, the restoring to life is referred to as healing. The Masoretic Text indicates that YHWH would raise them up, but the Septuagint rendering represents the healed people as being able to rise up. Since the healing is attributed to YHWH, the basic sense of the Septuagint does not really differ significantly from the Masoretic Text.
Commentary:
Hosea continues with the confident expression of the repentant Israelites. Although they had suffered “mortal wounding,” YHWH would restore them to life or, according to the reading of the Septuagint, heal them. After their returning to him as a repentant people, he would bring them to life in a relatively short time, comparable to a mere “two days.” On the third day, again representative of a brief period, YHWH would make it possible for the people to rise up, living before “his face,” “before him,” or in his presence as his acceptable, restored people. Their restoration would be comparable to a resurrection. (Compare Ezekiel 37:1-14.)
Masoretic Text: And let us know, let us pursue to know, YHWH. As dawn is established, [so sure is] his coming forth. And he will come like rain to us, like spring rain [that] waters the land. Septuagint: And we will know, we will pursue to know, the Lord. As dawn [is] prepared, we will find him, and he will come to us like early and late rain to the land. Note:
Commentary:
Hosea continues to represent the commendable determination of the repentant people. Unlike the past, when the Israelites chose to ignore YHWH and his righteous ways to pursue the veneration of other deities, the people will want to know YHWH, striving to conform their conduct to his commands. Theirs would be an eager pursuit to know YHWH as persons whom he approves and blesses. Just as surely as the dawn came each day (as if firmly fixed or established), so YHWH would come, responding to them favorably. His favorable attention would be like the needed and refreshing rain that waters the land. While the Septuagint rendering mentions both the early (in the autumn) and the late rain (in the spring), the Masoretic Text focuses on the late or spring rain. The softening of the ground by the early rain following the dry summer was essential for creating the right condition for planting, and the late or spring rain promoted the growth of the crops.
Masoretic Text: What can I do to you, Ephraim? What can I do to you, Judah? For your loyalty [is] like a morning cloud and like dew [that] disappears early. Septuagint: What should I do to you, Ephraim? What should I do to you, Judah? For your mercy [is] like a morning cloud and like early dew that disappears. Note:
Commentary:
Hosea is portraying YHWH as the speaker. Repeatedly, YHWH had disciplined both Ephraim and Judah (the people of the northern and southern kingdoms), allowing them to experience ruthless treatment from invading armies and the bitter consequences of being deprived of YHWH’s aid, protection, and blessing. The question basically was, What could yet be done to motivate the Israelites to repent and change their conduct?
Their loyalty, goodness, kindness, or compassion did not prove to be abiding. The display of noble qualities was comparable to a cloud or mist in the early morning that quickly disappears and provides no refreshing precipitation. The actions of the people did not reflect a dependable, refreshing compassionate response to the needs of others and an abiding faithfulness to YHWH. Any seeming return to their God typically proved to be short-lived. The people were like dew that quickly vanishes without providing the needed moisture for growing crops during the hot summer.
Masoretic Text: Therefore, I have hewn by the prophets. I have slain them with the words of my mouth. And your judgments [are like] light [that] goes forth. Septuagint: Therefore, I have cut off your prophets. I have slain them with the sayings of my mouth, and my judgment will go forth like light. Note:
Translations generally represent the Hebrew text in a way that indicates the prophets to have been the ones by whom the people were hewn. The Hebrew term for “hewn,” however, is not followed by a plural suffix that signifies “them,” but translators commonly have supplied the word “them.” Although the Hebrew preposition be often signifies “by,” it can also be used to indicate a hostile sense, “against.” Like the Septuagint, the Tanakh translates the Hebrew according to the hostile sense. “That is why I have hewn down the prophets, have slain them with the words of My mouth.”
Commentary:
The expression rendered “therefore” points to the reason mentioned in the previous verse—the people’s failure to manifest compassion or abiding faithfulness. If the words that then follow are directed against the prophets, this would be on account of their failure to call the people to repentance and to admonish them to amend their ways. Whereas true prophets of YHWH were loyal to their calling, the false prophets contributed to the continuance of the moral breakdown among the people. (Compare Micah 3:5-7; Jeremiah 2:8, 26; 5:13, 31.) By means of his true prophets, YHWH did hew these false prophets, exposing them as frauds and pronouncing his judgment against them. The words of YHWH’s punitive judgment, expressed through his prophets, were certain of fulfillment and, therefore, are spoken of as the instruments of slaying or killing. (Compare Jeremiah 14:14-16; 28:15-17.)
If the Masoretic Text is to be understood as referring to YHWH’s use of his prophets, then the “hewing” of the people would have been by means of the strong judgment messages directed against them on account of their serious failure to live up to their covenant obligations. YHWH’s words announcing the judgment were certain of fulfillment and, in this sense, proved to be the means by which the faithless people were slain. (Compare Jeremiah 5:14-17.)
Because of having been announced beforehand through the prophets, the adverse judgment, upon being experienced by the people, would clearly be revealed as having had YHWH as its source. (Compare Isaiah 48:5.) His judgment would be as clearly manifest as when the light of the sun illuminates the sky.
Masoretic Text: For loyalty I delight in and not sacrifice, and knowledge of God rather than holocausts. Septuagint: For mercy I want and not sacrifice, and knowledge of God rather than holocausts. Note:
Commentary:
Although the Mosaic law outlined an arrangement for sacrifices, the Israelites lost sight of their purpose and offered them in a ritualistic manner without the reverential spirit that should have been evident in abiding faithfulness to their God and love for fellow Israelites. YHWH had no need for sacrifices or whole burnt offerings. What he looked for was the manifestation of loyalty to him and genuine expressions of mercy or compassion. Knowledge of God should have been evident in attitudes, words, and actions that harmonized with his upright ways. It should have been the kind of recognition that was fully aware of being accountable to him and evident in praiseworthy conduct that brought honor to him.
Masoretic Text: And they [are] like a man [who] transgressed a covenant; there they dealt treacherously with me. Septuagint: But they are like a man transgressing a covenant. There he despised me. Notes:
The Hebrew ’adhám can be both the proper name “Adam” (the man or the city by that name) or the word for “man.” In the Septuagint, the corresponding term ánthropos means “man.” According to the Vulgate reading, the reference is to the man Adam. Many modern translations use “Adam” as a place name.
Neither the precise significance of the Masoretic Text nor that of the Septuagint is readily apparent. The result has been a variety of different renderings. “At a place named Adam, you betrayed me by breaking our agreement.” (CEV) “But at Adam they transgressed the covenant; there they dealt faithlessly with me.” (NRSV) “Like Adam, they have broken the covenant—they were unfaithful to me there.” (NIV) “But they, to a man, have transgressed the Covenant. This is where they have been false to me.” (Tanakh) “But they, in their land, violated the covenant; there they were untrue to me.” (NAB; note the rendering “land” for ’adám, a meaning suggested in the 2001 revision of Koehler’s work for Job 36:28 and a few other passages)
While the Masoretic Text can be rendered “and they, at Adam, transgressed a covenant,” this definitely is not the meaning of the Septuagint. It also seems unusual that a particular city would be singled out as the place where the covenant was transgressed, especially since the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom, with few exceptions, were guilty of violating the covenant concluded at Mount Sinai. Aside from being mentioned in connection with the miraculous damming up of the Jordan in the time of Joshua, Adam is not mentioned elsewhere. (Joshua 3:16) This, too, would seem to weigh against linking the city to the breaking of the covenant. The use of the generic “man” does convey a reasonable meaning and would seem to be the preferable choice in view of its having the support of the Septuagint.
Commentary:
The Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom proved to be like a man who failed to live up to the terms of a covenant. Although they were bound by the covenant YHWH concluded with the people at Mount Sinai, they disregarded its terms. The people chose to adopt idolatrous practices and in other ways acted contrary to the laws included in this covenant. Especially serious was their mistreatment of the poor and other disadvantaged Israelites. (Compare Isaiah 58:6, 7; Amos 2:6-8; 8:4-6; Micah 2:1, 2, 8, 9; 3:1-3.) The people’s disloyalty in adhering to their covenant obligations was an act of treachery toward YHWH. The reference to “there” could mean in the land or the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom. According to the Septuagint, “there” could apply to “Gilead” or “Galaad” in the next verse. This is the meaning conveyed in Brenton’s translation of the Septuagint. “There the city Galaad despised me.” (Note: The Greek verb is third person singular and so could have Galaad as the subject. If Galaad is not the subject, the verb would need to be rendered “it” or “he despised” [with the subject “he” being understood to refer to Ephraim as representative of the entire ten-tribe kingdom].)
Masoretic Text: Gilead, a city of those practicing wickedness, [is] tracked with blood. Septuagint: Galaad, a city working vanities, [is] disturbing water. Note:
Commentary:
Gilead is apparently represented as a notoriously wicked city, one where innocent blood is shed. The footprints did bear the marks of blood. Possibly the blood was that of children offered up as sacrifices. (Compare Ezekiel 23:36-39.) Other murderous acts may have included violent acts of robbery and judicial corruption that led to the death of innocent persons.
Usually, Gilead designates a region east of the Jordan River. For a city named Gilead, the context provides no link to a specific location. Perhaps the reference is to Jabesh-gilead or Ramoth-gilead, cities situated east of the Jordan.
Masoretic Text: As a lurking man [who is a part] of bands, a company of priests, [on the] way they murder, [on the way] to Shechem. Indeed, wickedness they have practiced. Septuagint: And your strength [is like that of] a man of raiding. The priests have hidden the way. They have murdered Shechem, for lawlessness they have practiced. Note:
Both the Hebrew and Greek are obscure, and this has resulted in two distinctly different renderings. One represents the priests as being like a murderous band, whereas the other rendering identifies the priests as being a murderous gang. “The gang of priests is like the ambuscade of bandits who murder on the road to Shechem, for they have encouraged depravity.” (Tanakh) “As brigands ambush a man, a band of priests slay on the way to Shechem, committing monstrous crime.” (NAB)
The reading of the Septuagint could be understood to mean that the people of Shechem were murdered.
Commentary:
Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint readings agree that the priests were practicers of wickedness or lawlessness. These were not priests of the family of Aaron, but priests officiating at sites where divinely disapproved forms of worship were practiced. For a time, the first monarch of the ten-tribe kingdom, Jeroboam, ruled from Shechem. (1 Kings 12:25) Since he introduced calf worship, Shechem also may have become a center for divinely disapproved worship.
In Hosea’s time, the priests either acted like a company of bandits on the road leading to Shechem or themselves were guilty of such murderous action. It would seem more likely that, because of the depravity associated with idolatrous practices, the priests were like a gang of robbers rather than themselves attacking individuals on the road to Shechem. If the priests were indeed the vicious attackers, one would expect to find a reason being given for their criminal activity, but this is not provided.
Masoretic Text: In the house of Israel I have seen a horrible thing. There [is] whoredom in Ephraim. Israel is polluted. Septuagint: In the house of Israel, I have seen a horrible thing. There [is the] whoredom of Ephraim. Israel was polluted. Note:
Commentary:
The horrifying or disgusting thing doubtless involved idolatry, including ceremonial prostitution and the abominable practice of child sacrifice. (Ezekiel 23:36-39) In this case, the whoredom of Ephraim (the dominant tribe of the ten-tribe kingdom or, collectively, the people of the realm) refers to idolatry, the deliberate departure from YHWH and a breach of the covenant relationship that bound the Israelites as a wife to her husband. On account of unfaithfulness to YHWH, Israel or the ten-tribe kingdom had become unclean or polluted like an adulteress.
Masoretic Text: Also for you, Judah, a harvest is prepared in my turning the captivity of my people. Septuagint: And Judah, start reaping for yourself in my turning the captivity of my people. Note:
Commentary:
The turning of the captivity could refer to the return from exile of the repentant remnant of Judah. This would suggest that the harvest could be of a favorable kind. This might mean the harvesting or gathering of the repentant people in the territory of their exile and restoring them to their land.
The context, however, does not specifically identify the captivity. There is a historical event in Hosea’s time that could fit what is set forth in this verse. At the hands of King Pekah of Israel, faithless Judean King Ahaz suffered a humiliating defeat. Thousands of Judean warriors fell in battle, and thousands from the realm of Judah were taken captive. The prophet Oded appealed to the army of Israel to return the captives to their land, and his words were heeded. (2 Chronicles 28:6-15) If the reference in Hosea is to this event, then the meaning could be that, although there was a returning of the captivity, a day of reckoning was still ahead for Judah on account of a serious failure to live up to the covenant obligations.
If the words of this verse are limited to the harvest involving Judah, this would point to the certainty of a coming adverse judgment. Judah or the southern two-tribe kingdom, like the northern ten-tribe kingdom, would face a time for reaping the ultimate consequences for failing to remain loyal to YHWH.
Masoretic Text: In my [wanting] to heal Israel, the iniquity of Ephraim and the evils of Samaria are also uncovered, for they work deception. And a thief will come in, and a [robber] band will raid outside. Septuagint: In my [wanting] to heal Israel, the wrongdoing of Ephraim and the badness of Samaria also will be uncovered, for they have practiced falsehoods. And a thief will enter in to him, and a robber stripping in his way. Commentary:
The words regarding healing may be understood as meaning “in YHWH’s desire to heal” or in his desire to restore them to a flourishing or prosperous state. Yet, the moral condition of Ephraim (representing the ten-tribe kingdom or, collectively, the people of the realm) and Samaria (the capital and paralleling Ephraim in representing the realm or, collectively, the people thereof) made this impossible. Among the Israelites, no evidence of repentance or a desire to return to YHWH existed. Instead, iniquity or wrongdoing and all kinds of badness prevailed among them. They did not act as brothers descended from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but were deceitful in dealing with one another. The reference to a thief and a robber is usually understood as continuing the portrayal of the then-existing moral decay. This is reflected in the renderings of translations. “They practice falsehood, thieves break in, bandits plunder abroad.” (NAB) “For they have acted treacherously, with thieves breaking in and bands raiding outside.” (Tanakh)
In the Septuagint, the word “thief” is followed by “toward him,” which suggests that the antecedent is Ephraim. This would mean that an action affecting Ephraim or the ten-tribe kingdom is involved, an action comparable to having a thief break into a home to steal or a person’s falling into the hands of a robber outside. The robber would waylay a victim, stripping him of his possessions. Accordingly, the adverse judgment to befall Ephraim would leave “him” deprived of all possessions, as if the victim of a thief and a robber.
Masoretic Text: And they will not speak to their heart [that] all their evil I remember. Now their practices surround them; they are before my face. Septuagint: That they agree like those agreeing with their heart. All their evils I have remembered. Now their intrigues have surrounded them; they have come to be before my face. Note:
Commentary:
With few exceptions, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom gave no consideration to what YHWH thought of their wayward ways. They did not speak to their hearts, their deep inner selves, in a manner that reflected an awareness of YHWH’s memory of their evils or their debased practices. So abundant were their disgusting deeds that they were completely surrounded by them. These acts were also before YHWH’s face, not hidden from his view.
Masoretic Text: With their evil, they gladden a king, and, with their lies, princes. Septuagint: With their evils, they gladdened kings, and, with their lies, rulers. Commentary:
As evident from the verses that follow, the reference is to those plotting against kings and the lesser officials, princes, or rulers. The seditionists apparently gladdened the king by making him feel that they were his loyal supporters or friends, possibly even arranging banquets where wine flowed freely. The objective of the plotters was to catch the king off guard, facilitating their scheme to overthrow him. They likewise deceived the lesser officials, regaling them with lies that concealed sinister motivations. When a king was assassinated, the lesser officials loyal to him were also killed.
A number of translations make the sinister aspect explicit. “In malice they make a king merry, and officials in treachery.” (Tanakh) “The Lord says, ‘People deceive the king and his officers by their evil plots.’” (GNT)
Masoretic Text: All of them [are] adulterers like the heated oven of a baker, [which] he will desist stirring up, from the kneading of the dough until its leavening. Septuagint: All [are] adulterers like a heated oven for baking, [stopping] from the flame [during] the kneading of the dough until its leavening. Note:
Commentary:
Evidently the plotters are designated as adulterers, which can mean that they were unfaithful to the covenant obligations that bound the Israelites to YHWH as a wife is bound to her husband. It could also include their engaging in ceremonial prostitution with the wives of other men.
These plotters were like a hot oven, the flames of which did not need to be stirred up from the time the dough is kneaded until it rises in preparation for baking. This could mean that the debased desires raging within the plotters were of such intensity that they needed no more stirring up than do the flames of a heated oven during the time the dough is rising. These improper desires were always ready to burst into flames, prompting the plotters to engage in despicable actions.
Masoretic Text: [In] the day of our king, the princes get sick [from] the heat of wine. He extends his hand to ridiculers. Septuagint: [In] the days of your kings, the rulers started to be inflamed from wine. He extended his hand with pestilent ones. Notes:
On account of a measure of obscurity in the Masoretic Text, translators vary in their renderings. “The day they made our king sick [and] officials with the poison of wine. He gave his hand to traitors.” (Tanakh) “On the day of the festival of our king the princes become inflamed with wine, and he joins hands with the mockers.” (NIV) “On the day of our king, the princes are overcome with the heat of wine. He extends his hand among dissemblers.” (NAB)
The Hebrew word chemáh can mean “heat,” “poison,” “rage,” or “wrath.” The meaning “poison” would indicate that the plotters poisoned the king and the princes or lesser officials. The meaning “poison,” however, would not fit the rendering of the Septuagint.
The Septuagint uses “days” instead of “day,” and “kings” instead of “king.”
Commentary:
The day of a king likely designates a special occasion when wine flowed freely and the plotters were among those on hand for the festivity. Apparently both the monarch and the lesser officials got drunk to the point of becoming sick. In his inebriated state, the king was vulnerable and foolishly extended his hand to the treacherous plotters, the pestilent ones, or the scoffers. This would have facilitated their scheme to kill him and the lesser officials. (See verse 7.)
Masoretic Text: For they neared [with] their heart, like an oven, their ambush. All night their baker sleeps. In the morning, it burns like a flame. Septuagint: For their hearts have been kindled like an oven to cause a casting down. All night Ephraim has been filled with sleep. Morning has come. The brightness has been kindled like a fire. Notes:
Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint are obscure. This has resulted in varying interpretive renderings. Based on an emendation, many translators have chosen to use “anger” instead of “baker.” “For they approach their ambush with their hearts like an oven: Through the night their baker has slept; in the morning, it flares up like a blazing fire.” (Tanakh) “[T]he plotters approach with hearts like ovens. All the night their anger sleeps; in the morning it flares like a blazing fire. (NAB) “Their hearts are like an oven; they approach him with intrigue. Their passion smolders all night; in the morning it blazes like a flaming fire.” (NIV) “For they are kindled like an oven, their heart burns within them; all night their anger smolders; in the morning it blazes like a flaming fire.” (NRSV) “Their anger is a fire that smolders all night, then flares up at dawn.” (CEV)
The reading “Ephraim” in the Septuagint may be understood to designate the men of Ephraim or the ten-tribe kingdom who schemed to overthrow the monarch.
Commentary:
The next verse suggests that the reference here is to the plotters. In their heart or their deep inner self, they schemed the overthrow of the king and his loyal lesser officials. Their heart, like a hot oven, was inflamed with hostility and intent on ambushing the intended victims or, according to the reading of the Septuagint, bring about their ruin.
If “baker” is the reading of the original Hebrew text, possibly the plotters are collectively designated as the baker, with the oven being their heart. Although the “baker” (the plotters collectively) slept at night, this did not change what was raging in their heart. The murderous scheme smoldering within the plotters would, in the morning, be ready to burst into a bright, destructive flame.
Masoretic Text: All of them get hot like an oven and consume their judges. All of their kings have fallen. To me, [there is] no calling [among] them. Septuagint: All [of them] get hot like an oven and have consumed their judges. All their kings have fallen. Not [one] among them called to me. Commentary:
In this case, “all” evidently designates those in the ten-tribe kingdom who were determined to overthrow the existing rulership. Like an oven that becomes increasingly warmer, they were inflamed with ever-increasing intensity by murderous passion. They plotted against judges and brought about their downfall or death, thus “consuming” or “devouring” them. Their kings became the victims of assassination plots. Shallum killed Zechariah, the last king of Jehu’s dynasty. After ruling only a month, Shallum perished at the hands of Menahem. Menahem’s successor to the kingship, his son Pekahiah, ruled only two years. One of his adjutants or principal officers, Pekah, with the aid of 50 men, carried out a successful assassination plot and began to reign. Pekah’s twenty-year rule came to a violent end, with the assassin Hoshea seizing the throne. (2 Kings 15:10, 13, 14, 23-25, 27, 30) During this time of instability and suffering from Assyrian aggression, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom did not look to YHWH for help. The distressing circumstances and the breakdown of law and order did not move them to appeal to him in a spirit of genuine repentance.
Masoretic Text: Ephraim mingles himself among the peoples. Ephraim is a cake not turned. Septuagint: Ephraim was mingling himself among the peoples. Ephraim came to be a cake not turned. Note:
Commentary:
Ephraim, as elsewhere in Hosea, represents the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. The people of the northern kingdom adopted the idolatrous practices and debased ways of other nations and formed alliances with them. During the time of Hosea’s prophesying, the ten-tribe kingdom allied itself with the Syrians, Assyrians, and Egyptians. Especially disastrous were the competing alliances with Assyria and Egypt, which led to punitive Assyrian aggression and the downfall of the ten-tribe kingdom.
A flat loaf of bread that is not turned during the baking process will burn on the bottom and remain undone at the top, making it unfit for food. Like such bread, Ephraim had come to ruin through involvement with other nations and their ways.
Masoretic Text: Strangers consume his strength, and he does not know [it]. Also gray hairs are scattered on him, and he does not know [it]. Septuagint: Strangers have consumed his strength, but he did not know [it], and gray hairs have grown on him, and he did not know [it]. Note:
Commentary:
The reference in this verse is to Ephraim as the dominant tribe of the ten-tribe kingdom and, collectively, the people of the entire realm. The “strangers” apparently were the foreign powers with which the ten-tribe kingdom had formed alliances. These alliances required the payment of tribute and led to punitive aggression when the demands of the stronger military power were not met. During the period of Hosea’s prophesying, the strength of the ten-tribe kingdom progressively diminished, but the full awareness regarding this did not seem to have been recognized by the kings and leading men of the realm. Instead of repenting of their wayward ways and turning to YHWH for guidance and aid, they continued to form alliances that only served to weaken the ten-tribe kingdom. (2 Kings 15:19, 20, 27-30; 17:1-4; Isaiah 7:1, 2)
Usually, gray hair is indicative of advancing age, accompanied by a reduction in vigor, and suggests that the major part of a person’s life has passed. Ephraim seemed blind to the evidence (comparable to the scattering of gray hairs) that the strength of the realm had been drained and its continuance as a kingdom would be short-lived.
Masoretic Text: And the pride of Israel testifies to his face, and they have not returned to YHWH their God and have not sought him in all this. Septuagint: And the arrogance of Israel will be humbled to his face, and they have not returned to the Lord their God and have not sought him in all these [things]. Note:
Commentary:
Israel applies to the ten-tribe kingdom. The pride of Israel was manifest in a stubborn refusal to amend their ways despite facing dire consequences. Their prideful course had led to the progressive decline in the strength of the ten-tribe kingdom and terrible suffering from Assyrian aggression. Before the face or right in front of Israel, the unfavorable testimony was clearly in evidence. The words “to his face” could also mean that the testimony was “against Israel” and would lead to bringing upon themselves YHWH’s severest judgment. According to the reading of the Septuagint, the pride of Israel would be humbled before Israel’s face or before the people’s eyes.
The Israelites had experienced bitter consequences from abandoning YHWH and adopting the idolatrous practices of other peoples and looking to militarily stronger nations for protection. Nevertheless, the painful consequences did not move them to heed YHWH’s pleas, conveyed through his prophets, for them to repent and change their ways. They refused to return to him repentantly and gave no consideration to seeking him as the One who could restore them to their past prosperity and protect them from falling victim to aggressive powers. The distressing and weak state in which the Israelites found themselves did not cause them to reflect seriously on their course and seek to regain an approved relationship with their God.
Masoretic Text: And Ephraim was like an [easily] deceived dove, without heart. Egypt they called; to Assyria they went. Septuagint: And Ephraim was like a foolish dove, not having heart. Egypt he called; to the Assyrians they went. Commentary:
Unlike most birds, doves tend not to be wary and, therefore, are easily ensnared. By forming alliances with stronger military powers, Ephraim or the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel was ensnared like an easily deceived dove. Instead of benefiting from the alliances, the kingdom suffered from a serious drain on its resources and repeated military invasions. In being “without heart” or “not having heart,” Ephraim is depicted as lacking good sense.
The historical account preserved in 2 Kings and extant Assyrian records provide details about Israelite involvement with Assyria and Egypt. In order to secure Assyrian support, King Menahem paid a tribute of a thousand silver talents to Pul (Tiglath-pileser III). (2 Kings 15:19, 20) According to extant Assyrian records, Tiglath-pileser III constituted Hoshea as king after the overthrow of Pekah and received tribute. (2 Kings 15:30) Hoshea, however, wanted to free himself from Assyrian control and appealed to Egypt for help. He refused to pay tribute to Tiglath-pileser’s successor, Shalmaneser V. This led to a punitive Assyian campaign against the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, which terminated in the capture of the capital Samaria and the exile of the survivors. (2 Kings 17:3-6) Thus, Ephraim’s calling to Egypt and going to Assyria proved to be a deadly entanglement.
Masoretic Text: As they go, I will spread my net over them. I will bring them down like the birds of the skies. I will discipline them according to the report to their congregation.
Septuagint: Whenever they shall go, I will throw my net over them. I will bring them down like the birds of the sky. I will discipline them according to the report of their distress.
Note: In the Septuagint, the report pertains to the distress to be experienced by the disobedient people. If the initial Hebrew letter is read as a sadhe, not as an ayin, the meaning would be “distress” and not “congregation.”
Commentary:
The people of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, as represented by their leaders, had proved to be like an easily deceived or senseless dove. As they would go to ally themselves with the Assyrians, YHWH would spread his net over them. He did so by letting the people become ruinously ensnared through their involvement with Assyria. Israel would face the same deadly consequences as birds brought down when caught in a net.
At the time YHWH concluded his covenant with the Israelites, he, through Moses, revealed the serious consequences for disobedience. This evidently was the report to the congregation, that is, the congregation of Israel. The previously announced discipline included humiliating military defeat and its accompanying suffering, loss of their land, and exile. (Leviticus 26:14-17; Deuteronomy 28:49-57, 63-68)
Masoretic Text: Woe to them, for they strayed from me. Ruin to them, for they rebelled against me. And I wanted to redeem them, but they have spoken lies against me. Septuagint: Woe to them, for they have turned away from me. Wretched they are, for they have been impious toward me. Although I redeemed them, they have spoken lies against me. Note:
Commentary:
The expression of woe directed to the people of the ten-tribe kingdom for having strayed from YHWH portended dire consequences. Their turning away from him included adopting idolatrous practices and looking to the military strength of other nations for aid and protection. Because the Israelites had revolted from adhering to YHWH’s commands, they would face ruin or, according to the reading of the Septuagint, found themselves in a miserable state. The payment of tribute and devastation from invading armies had left the ten-tribe kingdom in a wretched condition. The ruin that then lay ahead was the end of the ten-tribe kingdom and the exile of the survivors.
Although YHWH would have wanted to redeem the Israelites, restoring them to their formerly prosperous and secure condition, they were unresponsive to his appeals through his prophets. Or, according to the Septuagint reading, they did not act appreciatively respecting YHWH’s past deliverance of the people from Egypt. Instead, they spoke lies against him. By seeking the aid of other nations, they misrepresented YHWH and declared that he could not help or protect them.
Masoretic Text: And they did not cry out to me with their heart when they wailed on their beds. For grain and wine, they dwell as aliens. They depart from me. Septuagint: And they did not cry out to me [with] their hearts but howled on their beds. For grain and wine, they have gashed themselves. They were disciplined by me. Notes:
The Hebrew verb gur basically means to “sojourn” or “dwell as an alien.” For Hosea 7:14, the Brown-Driver-Briggs lexicon lists as a possible meaning “they assemble themselves,” and this significance is found in many translations. “For the sake of grain and new wine they assemble themselves.” (NASB) “They gather together for grain and new wine.” (NIV) “They assemble themselves for grain and new wine.” (NJB)
Other translators have chosen to follow the reading of the Septuagint. “For wheat and wine they lacerated themselves.” (NAB) “[T]hey gash themselves for grain and wine.” (NRSV) Interpretive paraphrases include: “They have rejected me for Baal and slashed themselves, in the hope that Baal will bless their crops.” (CEV) “They cut themselves, begging foreign gods for crops and prosperity.” (NLT)
On the basis of Hosea 4:11 and the Aramaic gar/yegur, meaning “to commit adultery,” the Tanakh reads: “They debauch over new grain and new wine.”
Another meaning that has been suggested for the Hebrew word is “excite themselves.” F. E. Schlachter, in his German translation, has adopted this significance.
The reading of the Septuagint, “they were disciplined by me,” appears to be a rendering of “and I disciplined” in the next verse of the Masoretic Text. This means that the extant Septuagint text has no words corresponding to the Hebrew, “They depart from me.”
Commentary:
Upon finding themselves in distressing circumstances, the Israelites would cry out to YHWH. This outcry was insincere. No change had taken place in the heart, the deep inner self. The people did not repent of their wayward ways and choose to follow YHWH’s commands. Their outcry, while in bed, was a mere wailing or howling about their miserable state.
The Septuagint reading indicates that the Israelites engaged in a practice forbidden by God’s law. (Leviticus 19:28; Deuteronomy 14:1, 2) In an attempt to get a hearing from their gods, idolaters lacerated themselves. (1 Kings 18:28)
If the Hebrew verb gur is original and is to be understood in its usual sense, the thought may be that the Israelites had made themselves resident aliens with reference to YHWH, turning to the fertility deities to secure for them grain and wine and engaging in debased rituals that included ceremonial prostitution.
The Masoretic Text calls attention to the fact that the Israelites had abandoned YHWH. These words are missing in the Septuagint, which apparently continues with a rendering of the initial part of the next verse of the Masoretic Text. According to the reading of the Septuagint, the people’s distressing circumstances were the consequence of YHWH’s discipline or chastisement.
Masoretic Text: And I disciplined [them]. I strengthened their arms, and against me they thought out evil. Septuagint: I strengthened their arms, and against me they thought out evils. Notes:
Translators commonly link the disciplining or training with “arms.” “Though I trained and strengthened their arms.” (NAB) “It was I who trained and strengthened their arms.” (NRSV) “I braced, I strengthened their arms.” (Tanakh)
A number of translations do not use “arms” in their renderings but convey two separate aspects. “I trained them and strengthened them.” (NIV) “I taught them what they know, and I made them strong.” (CEV) “Even though I was the one who brought them up and made them strong.” (GNT)
Modern German translations that retain “arm” and express two separate thoughts include the following: Ich lehre sie Zucht und stärke ihren Arm. (I teach them discipline and strengthen their arm.) (l984 revision of Luther’s translation) Und ich, ich wies sie zurecht, ich stärkte ihre Arme. (And I, I reproved them; I strengthened their arms.) (revised Elberfelder)
In the Septuagint, the reference to disciplining or training (verse 14 in Rahlf’s printed text) does not apply to the arms. Moreover, the Masoretic Text does not link the phrases about disciplining and strengthening with the conjunction “and.” Therefore, the preferable rendering appears to be to separate the disciplining from the strengthening.
Commentary:
YHWH’s discipline could refer to the training he provided to the Israelites by means of the Mosaic law and the activity of his prophets. It could also apply to the discipline or correction the people experienced from YHWH’s withdrawing his care and protection because of their unfaithfulness. That discipline included suffering resulting from enemy invasions.
The arm is representative of power. YHWH’s strengthening of the arms would indicate his restoring the power of the ten-tribe kingdom. This did happen during the reign of Jeroboam II. (2 Kings 14:25-28) Although the people of the ten-tribe kingdom benefited, this did not move them to reject idolatry and repentantly to return to YHWH. Their thoughts were evil toward their God, for they refused to recognize him as their Benefactor and continued to pursue the veneration of other gods.
Masoretic Text: They do not turn upward. They are like a treacherous bow. Their princes will fall by the sword because of the insolence of their tongue. This [will be to] their mockery in the land of Egypt. Septuagint: They returned to nothing. They became like a bent bow. Their rulers will fall by the sword because of the foolishness of their tongue. This [will be to] their contempt in the land of Egypt. Notes:
The Septuagint reading “bent” or “stretched” with reference to the bow may have arisen from reading the Hebrew word as a form of rum (lift up) instead of ramáh (deceive, beguile, deal treacherously).
The obscurity of the Masoretic Text and possible other meanings for the words have given rise to various renderings.
“They do not turn to the Most High; they are like a faulty bow. Their leaders will fall by the sword because of their insolent words. For this they will be ridiculed in the land of Egypt.” (NIV) Neither the Masoretic Text nor the Septuagint include the words “the Most High.” While the Masoretic Text, by implication, may be thus understood, this would not fit the reading of the Septuagint. The ridicule of Egypt is represented as being on account of the death of the Israelite leaders. An interpretive paraphrase conveys the same basic meaning. “They look everywhere except to heaven, to the Most High. They are like a crooked bow that always misses its target. Their leaders will be killed by their enemies because of their insolence toward me. Then the people of Egypt will laugh at them.” (NLT)
“They have again become useless, like a treacherous bow. Their princes shall fall by the sword because of the insolence of their tongues; thus they shall be mocked in the land of Egypt.” (NAB) While this rendering conveys the same sense about the mocking, the opening part of the verse seems to fit better with the Septuagint reading, “returned to nothing.”
“They come back; they have been of no use, like a slack bow. Their officers shall fall by the sword, because of the stammering of their tongues. Such shall be [the results of] their jabbering in the land of Egypt.” (Tanakh) This rendering represents the death of the officers as being on account of the talk in Egypt (with implied reference to gain the support of Egypt to get free from the Assyrian yoke), which is referred to as both “stammering” and “jabbering” because of being in a foreign tongue. In this case, the meaning “stammering” is derived from a linkage with Arabic.
Commentary:
Both the reading of the Masoretic Text and the rendering of the Septuagint indicate that the Israelites did not return to YHWH. The significance of “not upward” may be that the people’s thoughts were not directed to YHWH in his exalted dwelling place. According to the Septuagint, there was no return to anything beneficial and so no improvement in the attitude and conduct of the Israelites.
A defective bow is useless, as it cannot be aimed properly. The people, in having departed from YHWH, proved to be like a slack bow.
Faithlessly, the leading men of the ten-tribe kingdom had looked to alliances with foreign powers for help and protection. Their words were an insult to YHWH, the only dependable source in times of need. For having made themselves guilty of such foolishness, the rulers would perish by the sword. This could refer to the sword of assassins or the sword of war during Assyrian military action. (2 Kings 15:8-14, 25, 30; 17:3-6)
The mocking in the land of Egypt may be understood as resulting from the death of the leaders and the end of the ten-tribe kingdom. Possibly this alludes to an element of malicious glee. The Israelites had been liberated from Egypt centuries earlier, but, because of experiencing military defeat, they would be humiliated and once again find themselves in a state of slavery.
Masoretic Text: To your lips, a horn — like an eagle over the house of YHWH, because they have transgressed my covenant and rebelled against my law. Septuagint: Into their bosom like land, like an eagle upon the house of the Lord, because they have transgressed my covenant and acted wickedly against my law. Notes:
The basic meaning of the Hebrew word chek is “palate.” In this context, “lips” is the appropriate rendering.
No comprehensible meaning can be gleaned from the Septuagint. Brenton’s translation reads: “He shall come into their midst as the land, as an eagle against the house of the Lord.” (Even with the addition of the words in italics and the alternate rendering “midst” instead of “bosom,” the thought of coming “as land” is not meaningful.) With the following conjectural adjustments, a meaning can be conveyed: [One is coming] into their midst, [into the] land, like an eagle upon the house of the Lord.
The horn is a shofar or a ram’s-horn trumpet.
The Hebrew word nésher and the Greek word aetós can designate either an eagle or a vulture. Because there is no subject and no verb in the phrase involving this bird of prey, translators vary in their renderings. “You who watch over the house of the Lord!” (NAB) “One like a vulture is over the house of the LORD.” (NRSV) “Now an eagle is swooping down to attack my land.” (CEV) “An eagle is over the house of the LORD.” (NIV ) Denn wie ein Geier kommt das Unheil über das Haus des Herrn. (For like a vulture, the calamity is coming upon the house of the Lord.) (German, Einheitsübersetzung) “Something like an eagle is over Yahweh’s house.” (NJB)
Commentary:
The directive to prepare to blow the horn evidently is to be understood as meaning to sound an alarm. In the Hebrew text, the second person suffix, meaning “your,” is singular, suggesting that the prophet would be the one to herald the warning. Possibly the eagle is representative of the enemy army, with the house of YHWH being the people of the ten-tribe kingdom by reason of their covenant relationship with him. They had proved unfaithful to their covenant obligations and rebelliously disregarded YHWH’s law. As a consequence, calamity was impending, requiring the sounding of an alarm. The bird of prey was already in position over the house of Israel.
Masoretic Text: They cry out to me, “My God, we know you, [we] Israel.” Septuagint: They will cry out to me, “O God, we have known you.” Note:
Commentary:
In their distress, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom would cry out to YHWH. Their claim of knowing him as their God implied that they had a relationship with him and expected a favorable response. The Israelites generally, however, had proved unfaithful to their covenant obligations. In word and action, they did not conduct themselves as persons whose God was YHWH. Accordingly, their claim to knowing him as their God did not rest on a solid foundation.
Masoretic Text: Israel has rejected good. An enemy will pursue him. Septuagint: For Israel has rejected good. They have pursued an enemy. Notes:
The Greek term for “good” is plural and so denotes “good things.”
Unlike the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint refers to the Israelites as pursuing an enemy. This could be understood of their seeking an alliance with the Assyrians, an enemy that had invaded their land. (Compare 2 Kings 15:19, 20.) The Hebrew text, though, does appear to convey the sense that fits the context better.
Commentary:
The good that Israel had rejected included faithfulness to YHWH and obedience to his lofty requirements. The bad they chose was calf worship and the veneration of other gods, accompanied by such degrading practices as ceremonial prostitution. The people also showed little regard for the poor and the disadvantaged. In the fulfillment, the enemy that pursued Israel was Assyria, the military power that brought the ten-tribe kingdom to its end and carried the survivors into exile. (2 Kings 17:3-11; Amos 2:6-8; 8:4-6)
Masoretic Text: They made kings and not from me. They made princes, and I did not know [it]. [From] their silver and their gold, they made idols for themselves so that [they] may be cut off. Septuagint: For themselves they made [kings] to reign and not through me. They have ruled and did not make [it] known to me. [From] their silver and their gold, they have made idols for themselves in order that they might be destroyed. Commentary:
YHWH made a covenant for a kingdom with David of the tribe of Judah, which assured the continuance of the royal line through his descendants. (2 Samuel 7:10-16) The ten-tribe kingdom, however, had its start through a popular revolt against Rehoboam of the Davidic dynasty. (1 Kings 12:12-16; 2 Chronicles 10:12-19) Princes or lesser officials also were made such without any divinely granted authority. The introduction of calf worship by Jeroboam, the first monarch of the ten-tribe kingdom, laid the foundation for the eventual destruction of the realm. (1 Kings 12:25-33; 2 Chronicles 11:14, 15)
During the final decades of the ten-tribe kingdom, Shallum, Menahem, Pekah, and Hoshea attained to the kingship through assassination plots. (2 Kings 15:10-14, 23-25, 30) The princes or lesser officials under the usurpers were not constituted such with YHWH’s recognition nor was their any seeking of YHWH on the part of the Israelites respecting who might serve as kings and princes. In the choice of kings, YHWH was ignored. Those responsible for making someone king did not do it from YHWH or on the basis of his authorization. In their making princes, they kept YHWH out of any deliberations. From that standpoint, YHWH did not “know” about their dealings. They used gold and silver to make idols, with the result that their thus abandoning YHWH would lead to their ruin. (2 Kings 17:7-23)
Masoretic Text: Rejected [is] your calf, Samaria; my anger has burned against them. How long will they be incapable of cleanness? Septuagint: Reject your calf, Samaria. My anger was aroused against them. How long will they definitely not be able to be cleansed... Notes:
In the Masoretic Text, the opening verb is third person and could be translated “he has rejected.” “He rejects your calf, Samaria.” (Tanakh) The next phrase speaks of YHWH’s anger in the first person. From a grammatical standpoint, this would make “I reject” more appropriate.
A number of translators have chosen the imperative sense of the Septuagint. “Cast away your calf, O Samaria!” (NAB) Throw out your calf-idol, O Samaria!” (NIV)
Another option for translation is the use of passive voice. “Your calf is rejected, O Samaria.” (NRSV)
In the Septuagint, two different words for “not” appear, with the second one serving as an intensifier. The sense conveyed is “absolutely not,” “definitely not,” or “by no means.”
Commentary:
From the time of King Omri, Samaria was the capital of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. (1 Kings 16:23, 24) As capital, the city could be representative of the entire realm. The “calf” may refer collectively to the idolatrous representations of a calf at Dan and Bethel. Jeroboam, the first monarch of the ten-tribe kingdom, set aside these two cities as centers for calf worship. (1 Kings 12:28-33)
Samaria may, however, be understood in the restrictive sense as applying only to the city. The capital likely did serve as a major center for calf worship.
According to the reading of the Septuagint, either the inhabitants of Samaria or the people of the entire realm under the rulership of their king in Samaria were called upon to reject calf worship. The Masoretic Text may point to YHWH’s rejection of this form of idolatry. His anger was directed against the people for their unfaithfulness to him. Idolatry had made them unclean in his sight. The question was as to how long they would be unable to reform themselves and become a clean, pure, or innocent people. Their abominable record provided no promise of any change for the better.
Masoretic Text: For [it is] from Israel, and he, a workman, made it and [it] is not God. The calf of Samaria will become splinters. Septuagint: in Israel? And a craftsman has made it, and it is not God; for your calf, Samaria, was for causing wandering. Notes:
Translators have variously treated the reference to Israel. A number of translations combine the phrase with the previous statement, which does fit the reading of the Septuagint. “How long will they be unable to attain innocence in Israel?” (NAB) “How long will it be before they are pure in Israel?” (NLT) Others endeavor to convey a meaning by adding words. “For it is from Israel, an artisan made it.” (NRSV) “They are from Israel!” (NIV) “Someone from Israel built that idol for you.” (CEV) “For this is even from Israel!” (NJB) Was hat so etwas in Israel zu suchen? (What place does something like this have in Israel?) (German, Gute Nachricht Bibel) Denn wer sind Israel und das Kalb? (For who are Israel and the calf?) (German, Einheitsübersetzung)
The Septuagint rendering indicates that the calf caused Israel to wander, evidently meaning that this form of idolatry caused the Israelites to stray from YHWH.
Commentary:
If not regarded as part of the question that precedes this verse, the reference to Israel may be understood to mean that the calf originated with Israel. This form of idolatry was instituted at the direction of Jeroboam, the first monarch of the ten-tribe kingdom. As an object of human craftsmanship, the calf could not be God. It was merely a lifeless representation.
Samaria, the capital of the ten-tribe kingdom (as in the previous verse) could refer either to the city or representatively to the entire realm. The “calf of Samaria” (referring either to the one in the Samaria or, collectively, to the representations of a calf at the centers of idolatry) would be reduced to fragments. This “calf,” as suggested by the reading of the Septuagint, was the means by which the Israelites were led astray from the worship of YHWH at the temple in Jerusalem. (1 Kings 12:26-33)
Masoretic Text: For wind they sow, and a gale they will reap. The standing grain will not sprout [ears] for [them]. It will not yield flour. If perhaps it does produce, strangers will devour it. Septuagint: For wind-blasted [things] they sowed, and their ruin will await them. A sheaf does not have [enough] substance to produce flour. But even if it should produce, strangers will devour it. Commentary:
Sowing wind refers to engaging in activities that have no substance and are empty or worthless. By forsaking YHWH and adopting idolatry and the debased practices associated therewith, the Israelites made themselves guilty of such worthless sowing. As a consequence, they would experience the destructive fury of a gale, which would spell the end for the ten-tribe kingdom. Even what might give promise of yielding something beneficial would prove to be disappointing. Although there would be stalks of grain, their would not be enough kernels in the ears for making flour. Even if there should prove to be a yield, the Israelites would not benefit from it. Strangers or foreigners would devour it. In the fulfillment, the Assyrian military repeatedly devastated the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom and, finally, destroyed the capital Samaria, exiled the Israelite survivors, and transplanted peoples from other nations in the conquered land. (2 Kings 15:19, 20, 29; 17:3-6, 22-24)
Masoretic Text: Israel is devoured. Now they are among the nations like a vessel not bringing pleasure. Septuagint: Israel was devoured. Now it has come to be among the nations like a useless vessel. Commentary:
On account of the certainty of the end for the ten-tribe kingdom, the devouring of Israel may be referred to as an accomplished reality. The reference could also be to circumstances prior to the capture of Samaria. Before Hoshea, the last king of the ten-tribe kingdom, began to reign, Assyria had already devoured a considerable portion of Israel. Assyrian monarch Tiglath-pileser III had conquered the region east of the Jordan River and the northern portion of the ten-tribe kingdom and then exiled the surviving population. (2 Kings 15:29; 1 Chronicles 5:26) Among the nations, the humiliated Israelites would have been regarded with disdain and treated with contempt, like a useless vessel or a vessel in which no one found pleasure or delight.
With the fall of Samaria, all that remained of Israel was consumed. Those then exiled were subjected to the same treatment as those who had been deported earlier.
Masoretic Text: For they have gone up [to] Assyria — [like] a wild ass going alone — for Ephraim has hired lovers. Septuagint: For they have gone up to the Assyrians. Ephraim has revived himself. They loved gifts. Notes:
Aside from the opening phrase, the Septuagint differs from the Masoretic Text. The Septuagint reading may be understood to mean that, through alliances, Ephraim (representing the ten-tribe kingdom as the dominant tribe) thought to revive himself, flourish again, or gain new strength. The gifts the Israelites loved apparently designate the tribute paid to foreign powers for military aid. They loved such gifts on account of what they believed could be secured by means of them.
In the Hebrew text, the connection with the wild ass is not clear. English translations generally have linked the actions of Ephraim to that of the animal. “For they have gone up to Assyria like a wild donkey wandering alone.” (NIV) “You are like a wild donkey that goes its own way.” (CEV) “Like a wild donkey looking for a mate, they have gone up to Assyria.” (NLT)
In the Tanakh, the phrase about the wild ass has been transposed and made part of the thought of verse 8. “They have now become among the nations like an unwanted vessel, [like] a lonely wild ass.”
A number of modern German translations draw a contrast between the wild ass and Ephraim. Examples are: Sogar ein Wildesel bleibt für sich allein und unabhänging, aber die Leute von Ephraim versuchen, sich Freunde zu kaufen. (Even a wild ass remains solitary and independent, but the people of Ephraim try to buy friends.) (Hoffnung für alle) Ein Wildesel wahrt seine Unabhängigkeit, aber die Leute von Efram suchen überall Freunde zu kaufen. (A wild ass preserves its independence, but the people of Ephraim seek to buy friends everywhere.) (Gute Nachricht Bibel) These renderings, however, require the addition of more words than do the commonly used English translations.
In Hebrew, there appears to be a wordplay involving “wild ass” (pere’) and “Ephraim” (‘ephrayim).
Commentary:
The Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom, through their monarch and royal officials, negotiated with Assyria, seeking the aid and protection of this strong military power. In being like an isolated wild ass, the Israelites stubbornly chose their own way instead of looking to YHWH as the One who could secure their safety and well-being. Alone, a wild ass would also be more vulnerable to attack from large beasts of prey, and the Israelites endangered themselves through involvement with Assyria. The hire of the lovers consisted of the tribute paid for military aid. During the concluding decades of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, the representative members of the realm formed alliances with Syria and the competing powers of Assyria and Egypt. (2 Kings 15:19, 20; 17:3-6; Isaiah 7:1, 2)
Masoretic Text: Although they hire among the nations, I will now assemble them, and they will begin [as] littleness from the burden of a king of princes. Septuagint: Therefore, they will be delivered up among the nations. Now I will take them, and they will cease a little from anointing a king and rulers. Notes:
The Hebrew text is obscure, and translators have chosen various ways to convey something meaningful. Usually, chalál means “pollute,” “defile,” or “profane.” In this case, one suggested meaning is “begin.” To “begin littleness” has been rendered “begin to waste away” (NIV) and “shall begin to diminish in number” (Tanakh).
Another common rendering is, “They shall soon writhe under the burden of kings and princes.” (NRSV) A paraphrase of this basic thought is, “Soon you will suffer abuse by kings and rulers.” (CEV)
The opposite thought is conveyed by the following translation: “King and princes shall shortly succumb under the burden.” (NAB)
In the Hebrew text, there is no conjunction between “king” and “princes.” Translators have either added the “and” (as in the Septuagint) or have taken the Hebrew to mean “king of princes” or “great king.” (NLT)
The reading of the Septuagint differs considerably from the Masoretic Text.
Commentary:
Septuagint: On account of their seeking the help of the Assyrians, YHWH would permit the Israelites to be delivered up among the nations, apparently as exiles from their land. Perhaps YHWH’s taking them is to be understood of his taking them into exile by means of the conquering Assyrians. As a consequence, there would be a “little” cessation in the anointing of a king and associate rulers.
Masoretic Text: The Israelites sought to hire among the nations, apparently paying tribute to secure military alliances. The sense in which YHWH would do the assembling is not readily apparent. Perhaps the thought is that he would permit the conquerors to gather the Israelites to take them into exile. “But now I am going to gather them together and punish them.” (GNT) Another possibility is that YHWH would permit the Assyrian forces to assemble for the purpose of conquering the ten-tribe kingdom. “I will now gather an army.” (NAB)
The “king of princes” could refer to the monarch under whom princes or lesser rulers functioned. Or, as in the case of the Septuagint, the reference may be to a “king and princes” or rulers.
The burden may refer to the horrendous consequences from the Assyrian conquest. Israelite survivors (a greatly reduced number from those who once lived in the ten-tribe kingdom) would continue in a state of decline, experiencing humiliation and oppression as exiles under the dominion of the Assyrian monarch and lesser rulers.
Masoretic Text: For Ephraim has increased altars — for sinning. They have become to him altars for sinning. Septuagint: For Ephraim has increased altars. [His] beloved altars have become sins to him. Notes:
The Septuagint does not repeat the aspect of sinning and refers to the altars as being loved by Ephraim, that is, Ephraim was ardently attached to the altars associated with calf worship and numerous deities.
The same Hebrew word for “sinning” appears in two places. In the case of the first occurrence, the thought appears to be Ephraim’s objective respecting the altars. They concerned sin or guilt. Many translators have made this aspect explicit. Examples are: “Though Ephraim built many altars for sin offerings, these have become altars for sinning.” (NIV) “Israel, you have built many altars where you offer sacrifices for sin. But these altars have become places for sin.” (CEV) “When Ephraim made many altars to expiate sin, his altars became occasions of sin.” (NAB) “For Ephraim has multiplied altars — for guilt; his altars have redounded to his guilt.” (Tanakh)
Commentary:
According to God’s law to Israel, only one altar for burnt offerings was authorized for continued use. (Deuteronomy 12:4-6, 13, 14, 27) Ephraim, representing the entire ten-tribe kingdom by reason of its being the dominant tribe, violated this law. The first king of the ten-tribe kingdom set aside Dan and Bethel as centers for calf worship to prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem for worship. (1 Kings 12:25-33) In time, many altars were erected for sacrificing to other deities. (Amos 2:8) In itself, increasing the number of altars would have been sinful. Their use for idolatrous purposes compounded the sin.
Masoretic Text: I did write for him thousands [of commandments] of my law, [but] as foreign they are reckoned. Septuagint: I will write him an abundance, and his laws have been reckoned as strange [things] — altars, the beloved. Note:
Commentary:
YHWH’s writing may refer to his providing the many commandments making up his law to Israel. This is the sense conveyed by a number of modern translations. “I wrote for them the many things of my law.” (NIV) “The many teachings I wrote for him.” (Tanakh) Evidently, because this verse is in a context of sacrifice, the words also have been understood in a more specific sense. One interpretive paraphrase is, “My instructions for sacrifices were written in detail.” (CEV) Although receiving a multitude of specific instructions or commandments, the people disregarded them, treating them as foreign and as if they did not apply to them.
Masoretic Text: [As] sacrifices of gifts [to me], they sacrifice flesh, and so they eat. YHWH does not accept them. Now he will remember their iniquity, and he will punish [them for] their sins. They will return to Egypt. Septuagint: For if they do sacrifice a sacrifice, and do eat meat, the Lord will not accept them. Now he will remember their iniquities and avenge their sins. They have returned to Egypt, and they will eat unclean things among the Assyrians. Notes:
The Masoretic Text is obscure, whereas the Septuagint provides a clearer reading. To convey something meaningful, words need to be supplied when rendering the Hebrew text. Examples of two renderings are: “When they present sacrifices to Me, it is but flesh for them to eat.” (Tanakh) “They offer sacrifices given to me and they eat the meat.” (NIV)
In the Septuagint, the identical words about the Assyrians are later repeated (9:3), and there the Masoretic Text does have the corresponding phrase.
Commentary:
The Israelites did offer sacrifices, both holocausts and communion offerings. In the case of communion sacrifices, they ate a portion of the meat. In view of the corrupt form of worship involving golden calves, YHWH could not possibly be pleased with their sacrifices. The communion sacrifices amounted to no more than their eating meat. Through Hosea, YHWH expressed his disapproval, indicating that he would not accept them (either the faithless people or their offerings). YHWH would not forget their iniquity — their idolatry and failure to live uprightly. He would remember the bad record they had made for themselves, and punish them for their sins or their flagrant disregard of their covenant obligations.
The Masoretic Text does not indicate in what sense they would return to Egypt, whether as captives sold into slavery (Deuteronomy 28:68), as refugees (Jeremiah 42:14), or as petitioners seeking an alliance with Egypt to free themselves from Assyrian servitude (2 Kings 17:3, 4).
Septuagint: And Israel has forgotten his Maker and built shrines, and Judah has increased walled cities. And I will send fire into his cities, and it will consume their foundations.
Note: The Hebrew word heykál can designate either a temple or a palace, and both meanings are found in translations. The corresponding Greek term (témenos) does not refer to a palace but to a shrine or sacred precinct. The Vulgate uses the plural of delubrum, meaning “sanctuary,” “shrine,” or “temple.” The erection of shrines, temples, or sanctuaries would more appropriately represent an abandoning of YHWH than would the building of palaces. Therefore, the meaning “temples” would appear to be preferable.
Commentary:
YHWH was the one who made it possible for Israel to come into existence. Through a miracle, the aged Sarah gave birth to Isaac, the father of Jacob or Israel. Without this miracle, there would have been no nation of Israel. Moreover, YHWH delivered the people from slavery in Egypt and made them his nation. Israel, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom, lost sight of this, choosing to turn away from YHWH and to venerate lifeless idols. In violation of their covenant obligations, they erected sanctuaries for the adoration of golden calves and various deities.
Judah, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom, also acted faithlessly. Instead of relying on YHWH’s help and protection, they increased the number of their fortified cities, trusting in massive encircling walls to protect them.
Because YHWH’s word through Hosea was primarily directed to the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, this reference to Judah may be parenthetical. The Tanakh conveys the parenthetical meaning through punctuation. “Israel has ignored his Maker and built temples (And Judah has fortified many cities). So I will set fire to his cities, and it shall consume their fortresses.” This rendering suggests that the fire would be directed against the Israelite cities of the northern realm. In the fulfillment, this occurred during the Assyrian invasions of the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom. The fortresses probably designated the strongly fortified royal residence and the impressive fortified structures where the wealthy resided.
If the reference to Judah is not parenthetical, the cities would be those of the two-tribe kingdom. In the time of Hezekiah, many fortified cities fell before the Assyrian forces. (2 Kings 18:13) During the concluding years of the rule of the royal house in Jerusalem, the Babylonians invaded, capturing fortified cities and finally destroying Jerusalem. Judah’s trust in walled cities thus proved to be in vain. (2 Kings 24:1, 2, 10; 25:1-10; Jeremiah 5:17; 34:6, 7)
An interpretive paraphrase of the New Living Translation represents the words as applying to both kingdoms. “Israel has built great palaces, and Judah has fortified its cities. But they have both forgotten their Maker. Therefore, I will send down fire on their palaces and burn their fortresses.” This, however, is a departure from the actual wording of the Hebrew text.
Masoretic Text: Do not rejoice, Israel, like the peoples exult, for you have whored from your God. You have loved hire on all the grain threshing floors. Septuagint: Do not rejoice, Israel, nor exult like the peoples, for you have whored from your God. You have loved gifts on all the grain threshing floors. Commentary:
Harvesttime provided an occasion for rejoicing. Israel, or the people of the ten-tribe kingdom, were not to rejoice like other peoples who gave credit to their fertility deities for bountiful harvests. YHWH, the real source of all blessings, was the One whom the Israelites should have been acknowledging with thanksgiving. Grateful praise to their God should have uniquely distinguished their rejoicing, but the people had whored. By looking to fertility deities to assure good crops, the Israelites proved themselves to be like an adulterous wife, violating the covenant which bound them to YHWH as a wife to her husband. On account of their unfaithfulness to their God, they would not enjoy abiding blessings and would be deprived of the reason for exultation. While other peoples might rejoice, the Israelites would not be able to do so, for the harvests would prove to be disappointing.
The “hire” the people loved was what they perceived to be the payment they received from the deities they adored. Apparently they considered the grain on all the threshing floors to be a gift from the lifeless deities to whom they sacrificed and whom they worshiped with debased rituals, including ceremonial prostitution. The people’s perceived hire was like the payment a prostitute receives for her services.
Masoretic Text: The threshing floor and the press will not feed them, and the wine will disappoint [them]. Septuagint: The threshing floor and the press did not know them, and the wine disappointed them. Commentary:
Both the Hebrew and Greek word for “press” could designate a winepress or a press for extracting olive oil. Translators commonly have chosen the rendering “winepress.” As a food item, however, olive oil was essential, and “wine” or “new wine” is mentioned later. Therefore, the more likely meaning may be a press for crushing olives. The Good News Translation (Second Edition) conveys this meaning. “But soon you will not have enough grain and olive oil, and there will be no wine.”
The Israelites had strayed from YHWH and looked to fertility deities to grant them bountiful harvests. As a consequence of their unfaithfulness, the amount of grain obtained from the threshing operation and olive oil from the vat would be insufficient to nourish them. Adverse weather conditions, insect infestations, and agricultural disruption and devastation from military invasions would have been factors in greatly reducing grain, olive, and grape harvests. A poor grape harvest meant that the amount of new wine would be disappointing.
According to the reading of the Septuagint, the threshing floor and press did not recognize the Israelites. This could be understood to mean that the threshing floor and the press did not provide what the people needed for food, as if not acknowledging their desire for essential nourishment.
Masoretic Text: They will not remain in the land of YHWH, and Ephraim will return to Egypt, and they will eat unclean [things] in Assyria. Septuagint: They did not remain in the land of the Lord. Ephraim remained in Egypt, and they will eat unclean [things] among the Assyrians. Notes:
In the Septuagint, the verbs, with the exception of the phrase mentioning the Assyrians, are in the aorist tense, which is usually translated as a past tense. Perhaps the meaning is that, because the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom, had proved unfaithful to YHWH, they were as persons not remaining or residing in the God-given land but proved themselves to be like residents in idol-worshiping Egypt. In their deep inner selves and their affections, they were still abiding there. (Compare Acts 7:39.) Another possibility is that their not remaining in the land YHWH had given them and residing in Egypt were so certain of fulfillment as to be referred to as an accomplished reality. Their dwelling in Egypt could be as refugees or as slaves. (Deuteronomy 28:68)
Commentary:
By reason of the promise to Abraham, the Israelites received the land of Canaan. (Genesis 12:7) As a God-given land, it was the “land of YHWH.” On account of the people’s unfaithfulness, they would not be permitted to continue residing in the land. (Deuteronomy 28:63, 64)
Ephraim, as the dominant tribe, represents the people of the ten-tribe kingdom. Their return to Egypt could be as slaves, as suppliants for aid to cast off the Assyrian yoke, or as refugees. (Deuteronomy 28:68; 2 Kings 17:3, 4; Jeremiah 42:14) If the return is to be regarded as leading to having to eat what is unclean among the Assyrians, the reference would be to a return with a view to forming an alliance. This effort on the part of Hoshea resulted in Assyrian punitive action that brought the ten-tribe kingdom to its end. (2 Kings 17:4-6) Another possibility is that Egypt is being referred to representatively as designating a land of enslavement. This would mean that, instead of continuing to reside in the “land of YHWH,” the Israelites would dwell in a land of captivity.
Unclean things would include everything that the Mosaic law declared as unacceptable for nourishment. (Leviticus 11:2-43) Among the Assyrians, the exiled Israelites would be forced to eat defiled food.
Masoretic Text: They will not pour out wine to YHWH, and they will not please him with their sacrifices. Like mourners’ bread [are their sacrifices] to them; all those eating it will be defiled. For their bread [is] for their soul. It will not come to the house of YHWH. Septuagint: They have not poured out wine to the Lord, and their sacrifices have not been pleasing to him. Like mourners’ bread [are their sacrifices] to them; all those eating them will be defiled. For their bread [loaves] [are] for their souls. They will not enter into the house of the Lord. Note:
Commentary:
This could apply while the Israelites were still in their land or after their being taken into exile. The previous mention of Assyria does, however, seem to favor applying the words to the period of the exile.
If regarded from the standpoint of their yet being in their land, the meaning would be that all their libations or drink offerings and their other sacrifices were unacceptable. In the land, the unfaithful Israelites presented offerings at the centers for calf worship. This made their sacrifices as defiling or polluting as the bread of mourning. (Deuteronomy 26:14; Jeremiah 16:7)
The word “soul” can also mean “desire,” “appetite,” or “oneself.” Translators have variously rendered the phrase “for their soul”—“to satisfy your hunger” (CEV), “for themselves” (NAB), and “only for their hunger” (Tanakh). This could mean that, although the Israelites ate to satisfy themselves, they had nothing to present as an acceptable offering to YHWH. Instead of going to Jerusalem for worship, they frequented the centers set aside for calf worship.
In the land of their exile, the survivors of the Assyrian conquest would have been unable to pour out drink offerings to YHWH. They could not have presented acceptable sacrifices. Just like polluted bread, the bread mourners would eat, whatever food the exiles had was defiled. It was only for themselves. As exiles, they could not go to YHWH’s temple in Jerusalem.
Masoretic Text: What will you do on the day of a festal season and on the day of a festival of YHWH? Septuagint: What will you do in the day of assembly and in the day of a festival of the Lord? Commentary:
Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint use the singular word for “day.” This could mean that the reference is to a specific day of assembly or festal season and that the expression “festival of YHWH” simply may be a parallel designation. The New American Bible makes this meaning explicit in its rendering: “What will you do on the festival day, the day of the LORD’s feast?”
In the ten-tribe kingdom, the special festival day fell on the fifteenth of the eighth month (mid-October to mid-November) and resembled the festival of ingathering or booths observed one month earlier at Jerusalem. Although calf worship was divinely disapproved, the unfaithful Israelites, as in the wilderness, associated God’s name therewith. (Exodus 32:1-7; 1 Kings 12:28; 2 Kings17:25-28) If the question pertains to the time of the exile (which, based on the context, seems likely), the thought would be, How can the people do anything to keep the festival at its appointed time? Deprived of their centers for worship and as exiles in a foreign land, they were not free to observe it. Moreover, they had little reason for rejoicing on account of plentiful harvests.
The Tanakh departs from the use of the singular, giving a broader meaning to the verse. “What will you do about feast days, about the festivals of the LORD?” If the broader meaning is to be understood, this would also include the weekly sabbath and, at the start of each month, the festival of the new moon. (See the comments under 2:11.)
Masoretic Text: For, look! They are going from ruin. Egypt will gather them. Moph will bury them. The treasure of their silver—weeds will possess; thorns [will be in] their tents. Septuagint: Therefore, look! They are going out from the distress of Egypt, and Memphis will receive them and Machmas will bury them. Ruin will possess their silver; thorns [will be] in their tents. Notes:
The rendering of the Septuagint differs from the Masoretic Text. Perhaps the “distress of Egypt” refers to when the Israelites were enslaved in the land. Although they had gone out from that land of oppression, they would return, die, and be buried there. In view of their burial at Machmas, their being received at Memphis may be as dead bodies.
According to an emended reading, the words “from ruin” would be “to Assyria.” This emendation does not have the support of the Septuagint, and no Dead Sea Scroll fragment for this verse has been found.
The transliteration of the Hebrew “Moph” is generally regarded as meaning Memphis and is usually translated as such.
The Hebrew word qimmósh is a collective singular and may designate various kinds of weeds. Common renderings are “nettles” (Margolis, NRSV), “weeds” (CEV, NAB, Tanakh), and “briers” (NIV).
The Hebrew term chóach is a collective singular and appears to apply to a variety of thorny or prickly plants. The usual rendering is “thorns.”
Commentary:
“Going from ruin” or “devastation” may be understood to apply to the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom when fleeing from their land to escape the Assyrian invasion and devastation of the land. Like the survivors of the destruction of Jerusalem decades later, Israelites from the northern kingdom may have sought refuge in Egypt. (Jeremiah 43:4-7) Instead of being able to return to their homeland, the escapees would die in Egypt, where they thought themselves to be safe. Seemingly, as dead bodies, they would be gathered and then buried. (Compare Jeremiah 8:2, where a different Hebrew word for “gather” is linked with burial.) Memphis, a prominent Egyptian city, was known for its extensive burial grounds. For this reason, this city may have been mentioned as the place for burial.
Possibly “treasure of their silver” designates precious or costly items. Translations have variously rendered the Hebrew as “precious things of silver” (NRSV), “silver treasures” (CEV, NAB), and “treasures of silver” (NIV). Such treasure would have been found in the royal palace and edifices of the wealthy, and the sites would become places where weeds would flourish. In the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom, the former tents or dwellings of the escapees would be devastated, with thorny plants taking over.
Masoretic Text: The days of visitation have come; the days of recompense have come. Israel will know—a fool [is] the prophet; raging [is] the man of the spirit—because great [is] your iniquity and great [the] hostility. Septuagint: The days of vengeance have come; the days of your recompense have come. And Israel will be afflicted like the prophet, the deranged, spirit-moved man. Because of the abundance of your iniquities, your madness has increased. Notes:
The Masoretic Text is obscure, and the Septuagint reading differs considerably in the second half of this verse. In an effort to convey something meaningful, translators have added words. The result has been a variety of meanings.
The Septuagint reading suggests that the prophet is a false prophet, for Israel’s future affliction is compared to that of such a prophet. It appears that the prophet is also identified as a man moved by a spirit other than that of YHWH. On account of the people’s continuing to pile up a record of iniquities, the level of their madness or senselessness increased.
Whereas the Septuagint says that Israel will be afflicted, the Masoretic Text states that Israel will know. The sense in which Israel will know, however, is not stated. Numerous translators have understood this to mean that Israel is to be informed about the coming judgment. “Let Israel know this.” (NIV) “Let Israel know it!” (NAB, Tanakh) Others render the words to indicate that Israel will experience the punishment and recognize it as merited. “You will get what you deserve, and you will know it.” (CEV)
A number of translations have added words to make it explicit that the people are speaking disrespectfully of the prophet. “‘The prophets are crazy!’ the people shout. ‘The inspired men are mad!’ So they taunt, for the nation is burdened with sin and shows only hatred for those who love God.” (NLT) “‘This prophet,’ you say, ‘is a fool. This inspired man is insane.’” (GNT, Second Edition) “Israel will consider the prophet to be a fool, and the man who is inspired to be insane, because of the abundance of your sins, and because your hostility is great.” (NJB) Such renderings suggest that the attitude of the Israelites toward the prophets was a consequence of their sins and their hatred for the prophets or their message.
The last Hebrew word in this verse, mastémah, is found only in Hosea. The definition in Brown-Driver-Briggs lexicon is “animosity.” In the 2001 English revision of a lexicon based on Koehler’s German work, the definition is “persecution.”
Commentary:
The visitation is one for punitive judgment. Israel had strayed from YHWH and adopted idolatrous practices. This was accompanied by moral breakdown and oppression. For having failed to live up to their covenant obligations, the people merited retribution. Through his prophet, YHWH revealed that the days for “visitation” and “recompense” were at hand.
The Masoretic Text does not specify what Israel will know. Upon experiencing the punishment for their sins, they would not be ignorant about the reason for it. YHWH had announced the coming judgment through his prophets, and so the people would also know that it was YHWH’s judgment.
Although the Israelites disregarded the true prophets, they were pleased with the utterances of the false prophets. (Compare Isaiah 9:15; Jeremiah 2:8; 5:12, 13, 31; 14:14, 15; 23:13; Micah 2:11; 3:5-7.) Therefore, in this setting of impending retribution, the designation “prophet” may be understood collectively of the false prophets. Unable to provide any dependable guidance and exposed as frauds in the time of recompense, they would be clearly identified as fools. “Man of the spirit” (as also suggested by the Septuagint reading) appears to parallel “prophet.” The false prophets behaved as persons possessed, but they were not moved by YHWH’s spirit. (Compare 1 Kings 18:25-29; Ezekiel 13:2-16.)
The days of visitation or the days of retribution were at hand because of the people’s iniquities or law-defying conduct. They hated YHWH’s upright ways.
Masoretic Text: A watchman [for] Ephraim with my God [is the] prophet. A snare of a fowler [is] on all his ways; hostility [is] in the house of his God. Septuagint: A watchman [for] Ephraim with God [is the] prophet. A crooked snare [is] on all his ways. In the house of the Lord, they established madness. Notes:
Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint reading are obscure, resulting in renderings with different meanings. Either Ephraim or the prophet is represented as the watchman.
“Ephraim watches for my God.” (Tanakh) “Ephraim [was] a watchman with my God, a prophet.” (NAS) “Is Ephraim a watchman with my God?” (Darby) Ephraim liegt auf der Lauer gegen meinem Gott. (Ephraim lies in wait against my God.) (F. E. Schlachter, German)
“The prophet is a sentinel for my God over Ephraim.” (NRSV) “A prophet is Ephraim’s watchman with God.” (NAB) “The prophet, along with my God, is the watchman over Ephraim.” (NIV) “A prophet watches over Ephraim with my God.” (NJB)
Commentary:
These words are part of a message of judgment and, therefore, do not appear to present Ephraim (representing the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel as the dominant tribe) in a favorable light. It does not appear likely that Ephraim would be described as a “watchman with God” or as one who presumptuously had assumed that position.
The true prophets were watchmen, raising their voice to warn the people of impending judgment and directing them to take positive action to avoid calamity. (Compare Jeremiah 6:17; Ezekiel 3:17-21; 33:2-20.) Their message was the word of YHWH. They were “with God,” being in a special relationship with him as his servants, and he was with them, backing them up. (Compare Jeremiah 1:7, 8.)
Some translations represent Hosea as the watchman over Ephraim. “Israel, the LORD sent me to look after you.” (CEV) “God has sent me as a prophet to warn his people Israel.” (GNT, Second Edition) Such interpretive renderings, however, require adding more words than the literal Hebrew or Greek would allow. Possibly “watchman” may be understood as a collective singular, including all the prophets whom YHWH used as his watchmen for the people in the ten-tribe kingdom.
Translators have generally rendered the verse as applying to YHWH’s prophet or prophets, and this does appear to fit the context better than an application to false prophets who did prove to be a snare to the people. The Israelites disregarded the words of YHWH’s spokesmen, seeking to entrap them as a fowler does birds. Though living at a later time and in the kingdom of Judah, Jeremiah had this experience: “I was like a gentle lamb led to the slaughter. And I did not know it was against me that they devised schemes, saying, ‘Let us destroy the tree with its fruit, let us cut him off from the land of the living, so that his name will no longer be remembered!’” (Jeremiah 11:19, NRSV)
Ephraim or the people of the ten-tribe kingdom were in a covenant relationship with YHWH. In that sense, they could be referred to as the “house of [the prophet’s] God.” In that very house, where they should have been treated with respect deserving of servants of YHWH, prophets faced animosity, hostility or enmity. According to the reading of the Septuagint, the people firmly established madness or derangement in that “house.” They acted toward YHWH’s true prophets as persons who had lost their senses.
Masoretic Text: They went deep into corruption as [in the] days of Gibeah. He will remember their iniquity; he will visit their sins. Septuagint: They have been corrupted according to the days of the hill. He will remember his iniquities; he will avenge his sins. Notes:
In the Septuagint, the Hebrew name “Gibeah” is rendered according to its meaning “hill.” This meaning, however, does not give any indication about the degree of the corruption or debasement. The name of the city fits the context better.
Septuagint manuscripts vary in reading either “his” or “their.” Rahlfs’ printed text, based primarily on Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus, and Codex Alexandrinus, reads “his.” The apparent antecedent is “Ephraim.”
Commentary:
The deep corruption or the level of degradation to which the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom had sunk proved to be like that in the “days of Gibeah,” with apparent reference to the horrendous sex crime committed in this city of Benjamin. During the period of the judges, a Levite, with his concubine and servant, planned to stay overnight in Gibeah. On seeing them in the public square, an old man, originally from the territory of Ephraim, invited them to stay with him. Later, a mob of men arrived at the host’s home, intending to rape the Levite. The protests of the host were ignored and, apparently in desperation, the Levite turned his concubine over to the mob. They so abused her all night that she died in the morning. (Judges 19:12-28)
Because the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom had sunk to a level of shocking corruption, YHWH would not forget their iniquity, leaving it unpunished. They would experience his punitive visitation as a recompense for their sins.
Masoretic Text: Like grapes in a wilderness, I found Israel. Like an early fig on a fig tree in its first [year], I saw your fathers. They went to Baal-peor and dedicated themselves to shame, and they became detestable ones like their loved [thing]. Septuagint: Like a grape [cluster] in the wilderness, I found Israel. And like [watched-for fruit] on an early fig tree, I saw their fathers. They went to Baal-peor and separated [themselves] to shame, and the loved [things] became like the loathsome [things]. Note:
Commentary:
For one to unexpectedly find grapes in a wilderness or an early fig on a fig tree would occasion delight. In this state, YHWH initially found Israel or their forefathers. At divine direction, the Israelites obediently followed Moses into the wilderness. (Compare Jeremiah 2:2.) The obedient response soon changed to a spirit of complaint and rebellion. Then, as their wandering in the wilderness was nearing its end, many Israelite men became involved in worshiping Baal-peor. With Moabite and Midianite women, they sacrificed to this deity, shared in the sacrificial meal, and yielded to the allurement of cultic prostitution. (Numbers 25:1-3, 6, 17, 18; Deuteronomy 4:3; Psalm 106:28 ) Baal-peor or the Baal of Peor was something shameful, disgusting, or loathsome from YHWH’s standpoint. When the men separated themselves from YHWH, attaching themselves to this foreign deity, they dedicated themselves to “shame” or the “shameful thing.” Through their actions, the “shameful thing” had become their “loved thing,” an object to which they attached themselves. In doing so, they became as loathsome or detestable as what had become their “loved thing.”
Masoretic Text: Ephraim—their glory will fly away like a bird, from bearing and from the womb and from conception. Septuagint: Ephraim—like a bird has flown away, [so have] their glories, from births and labor pains and conceptions. Note:
Commentary:
The glory, honor, or dignity that Ephraim (the dominant tribe of the ten-tribe kingdom representing the entire realm) once enjoyed would vanish as when birds fly away. In the fulfillment, the Assyrian forces devastated the land, captured the capital Samaria, and exiled the survivors.
A kingdom derived its glory from having numerous subjects. (Proverbs 14:28) Therefore, the tremendous loss of life during the Assyrian conquest and the exile of the survivors left no trace of the former glory. Not a vestige remained of the prosperous, independent northern kingdom of earlier years.
During the period of divine judgment, nothing would occur to restore the former glory even partially. Without any Israelite inhabitants in the land, no child would be born, no baby would develop in the womb, and no woman would conceive.
Masoretic Text: But if they raise their sons, I will bereave them of man; for also woe [is] to them when I turn away from them. Septuagint: For even if they should rear their children, childless they will become of men; for also woe is to them—my flesh from them. Note:
Commentary:
Even if the possibility of raising sons existed, they would have no future. By means of his instrument (which proved to be Assyria), YHWH would cause bereavement. The sons would perish.
The expression “bereave them of man” has been commonly understood to mean that no one would survive—“bereave them of every one” (NIV), “bereave them until no one is left” (NRSV), and “make them childless, till not one is left” (NAB). Another possibility is that, even if they did rear sons, the children would not attain to manhood.
YHWH’s leaving the Israelites meant that they would be without his aid and protection, totally helpless and at the mercy of ruthless enemies. This is the reason for the expression of “woe.” Dire calamity was certain to befall the Israelites.
Masoretic Text: Ephraim [is], as I saw Tyre, planted in a pasture, and Ephraim [is] to deliver his sons for slaughter. Septuagint: Ephraim, in [the] way I saw [him], placed [his] children for prey, and Ephraim [is] to bring out his children for piercing. Note:
Commentary:
Ephraim (the dominant tribe representing the ten-tribe kingdom) was like Tyre, flourishing and prosperous as if planted in a lush pasture. YHWH saw Ephraim, like Tyre, enjoying this desirable condition. While Hosea served as YHWH’s prophet, Ephraim regained a measure of prosperity. (2 Kings 14:23-27) This, however, was to end. Ephraim or the ten-tribe kingdom would be forced to give up the “sons,” children or subjects to be slaughtered in war. This occurred during the Assyrian conquest of the realm.
Masoretic Text: Give to them, YHWH; what will you give? Give to them a barren womb and dry breasts. Septuagint: Give to them, Lord; what will you give to them? Give to them a barren womb and dry breasts. Commentary:
Because the people had abandoned YHWH and chosen to engage in idolatry and the degraded practices associated therewith, Hosea recognized they deserved to be punished. His question was, What should YHWH give to them as a repayment? No womb should bear and no breast should provide life-sustaining milk for a baby.
Possibly Hosea’s words constitute a compassionate wish that women be spared the horror of seeing their offspring mercilessly slain. It would be preferable for them to remain barren and unable to nurse babies. (Compare Luke 23:29.)
Masoretic Text: All their evil [was] in Gilgal, for there I hated them. Because of their evil practices, I will cast them out of my house. No more will I love them. All their princes [are] rebellious. Septuagint: All their evils [were] in Galgal, for there I hated them. Because of their evil practices, I will cast them out of my house. By no means will I continue loving them. All their rulers [are] rebellious. Notes:
Both in Greek and Hebrew, the last word can describe either rebellious or stubborn ones.
In the Septuagint, there are two different words for “not,” the significance being “by no means,” “definitely not,” or “absolutely not.”
Commentary:
The evil or evils committed in Gilgal are not specified. Other references in Hosea and Amos suggest that the city served as a prominent center for idolatry. (Hosea 4:15; 12:11 [12]; Amos 4:4) The Israelites, by forsaking YHWH and choosing to venerate other deities, incurred his hatred. Like an adulteress, the people proved disloyal to the covenant obligations that bound them to YHWH as a wife to her husband.
Their evil practices included ceremonial prostitution, child sacrifice, and unrestrained drinking at the cultic sites, and cruel oppression of the poor. (2 Kings 17:7-17; Hosea 4:13, 14; Amos 2:6-8; 8:4-6) On account of their evil practices, YHWH would cease to recognize them as his people, members of his house or household. They had forfeited their right to continue living in the land he had given them. In the fulfillment, YHWH allowed the Assyrians to conquer the ten-tribe kingdom and to deport the survivors. Loss of their God-given land constituted their complete ouster from his house as a rejected people. As a cast-off people, the Israelites would not be recipients of YHWH’s love. Especially their rulers had demonstrated a stubborn and rebellious spirit toward YHWH. No king in the ten-tribe kingdom abandoned the cult of calf worship that Jeroboam, the first monarch, instituted to prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem for worship.
Masoretic Text: Ephraim has been beaten. Their root is dried up. They will not produce fruit. Even if they do generate, I will also kill the desired [fruits] of their womb. Septuagint: Ephraim has suffered. He has dried up to his roots. No more will he bear fruit. For even if they do generate, I will kill the desires of their womb. Commentary:
Ephraim (the people of the ten-tribe kingdom as represented by the dominant tribe) had suffered or experienced beating from Assyrian aggression. Even prior to the capture of Samaria, Assyrian campaigns under Tiglath-pileser III had devastated much of the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom. Many Israelites living east of the Jordan and in the northern part of the realm perished or were deported. (2 Kings 15:19, 20, 29; 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26) Ephraim’s roots had indeed dried up. Prospects for recovery—the producing of fruit—were nonexistent.
Offspring would constitute the “desired fruit of the womb.” Yet, even if children were born, they would face a dismal future. In the fulfillment of the prophetic word, YHWH killed them when he permitted the Assyrians to overthrow Samaria, completing the conquest of the ten-tribe kingdom.
Masoretic Text: My God will reject them, for they have not listened to him, and they will be wanderers among the nations. Septuagint: God will reject them, for they have not listened to him, and they will be wanderers among the nations. Commentary:
YHWH repeatedly sent his prophets to Israel, warning them of the consequences for violating their covenant obligations. The people, however, refused to listen to YHWH’s words conveyed to them through his prophets. Therefore, he would reject them, leaving them at the mercy of their enemies. Ripped from their land, the survivors of military aggression would find themselves as despised wanderers among the nations.
Masoretic Text: A flourishing vine [is] Israel; fruit [it] produces for him. According to the abundance of his fruit, he has increased altars. According to the good [things] of his land, they have goodly made pillars. Septuagint: A flourishing vine [is] Israel; its fruit [is] thriving. According to the abundance of his fruits, he increased altars. According to the good [things] of his land, he erected pillars. Notes:
According to lexicographers, the Hebrew verb baqáq (a form of which here describes the vine) can convey the idea of being profuse, abundant, or luxuriant, but it may also mean being empty or waste. This has led to renderings having very different meanings. “Israel is a ravaged vine and its fruit is like it. When his fruit was plentiful, he made altars aplenty; when his land was bountiful, cult pillars abounded.” (Tanakh) “Israel is a luxuriant vine whose fruit matches its growth. The more abundant his fruit, the more altars he built; the more productive his land, the more sacred pillars he set up.” (NAB) “Israel was a spreading vine; he brought forth fruit for himself. As his fruit increased, he built more altars; as his land prospered, he adorned his sacred stones.” (NIV)
In the Septuagint, the word corresponding to the baqáq is a compound consisting of eu (well) and kléma (branch). Apparently the participial form in the Hosea passage describes a vine flourishing with branches. Lexicographers have defined the verb as meaning “grow luxuriantly.” In the Vulgate, the term is a form of frondosus, meaning “full of leaves” or “leafy.” Accordingly, neither the Septuagint nor the Vulgate would support renderings such as “empty,” “waste,” or “ravaged.”
The Hebrew expression used regarding the pillars is a form of yatáv, which basically means “be good,” “do good” or “make good.” For the verse in Hosea, lexicographers have suggested the meanings “to erect splendid pillars” and “dress” (“adorned,” NIV; “improved,” NRSV). The term in the Septuagint is a form of oikodoméo, meaning “to build,” “construct,” “form,” “fashion,” or “erect” (“set up,” NAB). In the Vulgate, the corresponding word (a form of exubero) denotes “abound,” a meaning also found in modern translations (“abounded,” Tanakh).
The Masoretic Text has two word plays, which can be conveyed by using the English expressions “increase” (instead of “abundance”) and “increased” in the phrase about the altars and then “good things” and “goodly made” in the concluding phrase. In the Tanakh, the play on words is reflected in the use of “plentiful” and “aplenty” and thereafter “bountiful” and “abounded.”
Commentary:
As a “vine,” Israel should have been producing good fruit in the form of justice, compassion, and an intense love for YHWH manifested through loyal adherence to his commands. (Isaiah 5:1-7) This, however, was not the case. The Masoretic Text may be understood to mean that they bore fruit for themselves and not the kind of fruit that would be expected from YHWH’s people.
When their prosperity increased, the Israelites continued to add altars for the veneration of fertility deities and other gods and goddesses. Abundant harvests (good things from the land) caused them to become even more devoted to idolatry. They labored in fashioning pillars, probably phallic symbols of the fertility god Baal.
Masoretic Text: Their heart [is] slippery. Now they will suffer for their guilt. He will break their altars. He will destroy their pillars. Septuagint: They have divided their hearts. Now they will be exterminated. He will raze their altars. Their pillars will be troubled. Note:
Commentary:
The heart of Israel, the deep inner self of the people, proved to be slippery, probably meaning false, untrustworthy, or insincere. According to the Septuagint, they divided their hearts. While claiming to be God’s people, they were disloyal to him and venerated foreign deities. On account of their unfaithfulness, YHWH determined to make them accountable for their guilt, letting them experience the consequences for having rejected his commands. He would break the altars at the cultic sites and destroy the pillars, probably phallic symbols of the fertility god Baal. YHWH accomplished this through human agencies. Assyrian aggression evidently contributed to a devastation of cultic sites. (Hosea 10:5-8) After the fall of the ten-tribe kingdom, King Josiah, in fulfillment of a prophecy uttered centuries earlier, demolished altars and destroyed other appendages of idolatry in the former realm of the ten-tribe kingdom. (1 Kings 13:1, 2; 2 Kings 23:14-20; 2 Chronicles 34:3-7)
Masoretic Text: For now they will say, “For us [there is] no king, for we do not fear YHWH; and the king, What can he do for us?” Septuagint: Because now they will say, “For us [there] is no king, for we have not feared the Lord. But the king, what could he do for us?” Commentary:
Israel’s acknowledgment about not having a king may be variously understood. Possible meanings include: (1) The Israelites did not have a king who met their needs and expectations. (2) The king was not an independent monarch but was subservient to Assyria. (2 Kings 15:19, 20; 17:3) (3) Because the Assyrian monarch had imprisoned Hoshea, the people had no acting king. (2 Kings 17:4) (4) The Assyrian conquest of Samaria brought an end to the ten-tribe kingdom, leaving the survivors without an Israelite king. (2 Kings 17:5, 6) (5) On account of the Assyrian threat, the Israelites might as well say that they had no king because they could not depend on him for aid. (6) The Israelites had no king with a rightful claim to rulership on the basis of YHWH’s will. (7) The people did not accord their ruler the kind of recognition customarily granted to kings, as evident from the fact that four of them (Zechariah, Shallum, Pekahiah and Pekah) were assassinated. (2 Kings 15:8-10; 13-15, 23-25, 30) (8) The Israelites had rejected YHWH as their king, for they refused to manifest a reverential fear. (Compare Isaiah 33:22.)
Translators generally have chosen punctuation that presents the failure to fear YHWH as the reason for the expression about not having a king. The punctuation of the Tanakh, however, conveys a different meaning: “Truly, now they say, ‘We have no king; for, since we do not fear the LORD, What can a king do to us?’”
The majority of the Israelites in the ten-tribe kingdom did not have a wholesome fear or reverential regard for YHWH. This was evident from their failure to shun idolatry and their lack of compassion for the poor and afflicted ones in their midst. (Amos 2:6-8; 8:4-6) The undesirable situation in which the people found themselves on account of the Assyrian threat was the direct result of their disregard for YHWH.
Apparently, in view of the grave danger Assyrian dominance posed, an Israelite king would have been helpless. The question about a king implied that he would be unable to provide the needed aid and protection for his subjects. This thought has been paraphrased as follows: “But what could a king do for us anyway?” (GNT, Second Edition) “But what’s the difference? What could a king do for us anyway?” (NLT)
Masoretic Text: They speak words, oaths of worthlessness, [when] cutting a covenant. And judgment will sprout like a poisonous plant in the furrows of a field. Septuagint: Speaking words, deceptive pretexts, he will establish a covenant. Judgment will sprout like weed[s] in a barren field. Notes:
The Hebrew idiom for “conclude a covenant” is “cut a covenant,” referring to the means by which a covenant was established or ratified. Sacrificial victims were cut in two, after which the parties to the covenant or agreement would pass between the pieces. (Compare Genesis 15:9-17; Jeremiah 34:18.) This implied that persons violating the terms of the covenant or agreement would be deserving of the fate of the sacrificial victims.
Translators generally have rendered this verse as a separate thought. The Septuagint reading, however, would allow for it to be an answer to the question, What can a king do for us? In the New American Bible, the verse is worded as an answer to this question. “Since they do not fear the LORD, what can the king do for them? Nothing but make promises, swear false oaths, and make alliances.”
Commentary:
Apparently with particular reference to agreements or covenants, the words the responsible Israelite parties spoke were untrustworthy. The men in ruling positions made oath-bound promises when concluding covenants or forming alliances with foreign powers, but evidently they did not intend to live up to their agreements. Their “oaths” were worthless or made with deceptive pretexts. A historical example of this was King Hoshea’s breaking his agreement with the Assyrian monarch and seeking an alliance with Egypt. (2 Kings 17:3, 4) Because the spoken word, even when backed by an oath, could not be trusted, the Israelites in the ten-tribe kingdom could not expect fair judgment or justice from those acting in a judicial capacity. The kind of judgment the judges rendered was comparable to poisonous plants or noxious weeds sprouting in furrows or on uncultivated land.
Masoretic Text: Those dwelling in Samaria fear for the calf of Beth-aven, for its people and its priests mourn over it; they [once] rejoiced over its glory, but [it] has departed from it. Septuagint: For the calf of the house of On, the inhabitants of Samaria will sojourn, for its people have mourned for it; and as they have provoked him, they will rejoice over his glory, for it has departed from him. Notes:
The Hebrew term here translated “calf” is plural and feminine gender, but the Septuagint uses the masculine form for “calf.”
As in Hosea 4:15 and 5:8, the Septuagint reading for Beth-aven is “house of On.” This is because “Beth” means “house” and a different vowel pointing changes “aven” to “On.”
The Hebrew verb gur basically means to “sojourn” or “dwell as an alien.” In this context, the word is generally understood to mean “fear.” The Septuagint reading reflects the usual significance but does not convey anything meaningful.
Although “rejoice” is the basic meaning of the Hebrew word gil, it does not seem to fit the context well, which pertains to the loss of the golden calf or calves. The Septuagint also has a term for “rejoice.” In an effort to convey something meaningful, translators have either added words or emended the text. “Indeed, its people and priestlings, whose joy it once was, mourn over it for the glory that is departed from it.” (Tanakh) “Its people will mourn over it, and so will its idolatrous priests, those who had rejoiced over its splendor, because it is taken from them into exile.” (NIV) “The people mourn for it and its priests wail over it, because the glory has departed from it.” (NAB) “Its people shall mourn for it, and its idolatrous priests shall wail over it, over its glory that has departed from it.” (NRSV) “The idol there was the pride of the priests.” (CEV)
The Septuagint makes no mention of priests but refers to the people as having “provoked him.” Although the reading of the Masoretic Text and the rendering of the Septuagint are obscure, both indicate that the loss of the “calves” or “calf” would give rise to mourning.
Commentary:
The Syriac and the Septuagint use the singular “calf.” If the Masoretic Text preserves the original reading, possibly more than one representation of a calf occupied the site. The name “Beth-aven” may be defined as “house of iniquity,” “house of deception,” “house of hurtfulness,” “house of disaster,” “house of nothingness,” or “house of trouble.” It appears that, in this context, the place is a designation for Bethel (“house of God”). Upon becoming a center for calf worship, Bethel ceased to be a “house of God” and was transformed into “Beth-aven,” a place of hurtfulness, iniquity, deception, nothingness, disaster or trouble.
The representation of a calf that Jeroboam set up at Bethel is referred to as being of gold, likely meaning an overlaying of gold. (1 Kings 12:28) The Assyrians would have regarded the image as valuable and as representing the god of the Israelites. Their seizure of the calf would therefore have been a symbolic act, indicating that they had triumphed over the “god” of Israel.
Those dwelling in Samaria could be either the inhabitants of the capital or all of the Israelites in the ten-tribe kingdom (represented by the capital Samaria). Because of the serious threat from the Assyrians, the people would have feared that they would seize the calf. If the fear of the Israelites is to be understood as following the Assyrian seizure of the calf, the reference may be to their being afraid of what would happen to them because of having been deprived of their idol.
The loss of the calf would have caused the people to mourn. The idolatrous priests would likewise have had reason for sadness, as they would no longer have a splendid visible representation for their cultic ceremonies. Perhaps the “rejoicing” of the priests, if the term represents the original reading, may be understood of their past rejoicing, the pride they may have taken in their impressive idol. Upon its being seized by the Assyrians, the image would lose its “glory.” No longer would it occupy the principal place at the cultic site. The Assyrians may even have broken it to pieces for easier transport. (Compare 2 Kings 24:13; 25:13.)
Masoretic Text: Also with him to Assyria it will be carried away [as] a gift to a king, Jareb. Ephraim will receive shame, and Israel will be ashamed of his counsel. Septuagint: And it for the Assyrians having been bound, they carried [it] away [as] tribute to King Jarim. As a gift, Ephraim will receive, and Israel will be ashamed in his counsel. Notes:
As in 5:13, the Septuagint reads “Jarim” and the expression in the Masoretic Text can be transliterated as “Jareb.” (NASB, Luther 1984 revised [German], revised Elberfelder [German]) No Assyrian monarch, however, is known to have been so named. Numerous translations have chosen to render the Hebrew designation according to possible meanings, resulting in a variety of renderings—“great king” (CEV, NAB), “patron king” (Tanakh; a footnote on 5:13 links the designation with a verb meaning “to champion, uphold the case of”), “a king who will contend” (NRSV, footnote, but “great king” in the main text), and “King Contentious” (Margolis). The term in the Vulgate is a form of ultor, meaning “revenger” or “avenger.” A 2001 revision of Koehler’s work indicates that the meaning “the Great One” is based on a linkage with Ugaritic. The other suggested meaning is “King Squabbler.” The Brown-Driver-Briggs lexicon of 1906 suggests “one who contends” as a possible meaning.
The Septuagint reading about Ephraim’s receiving a gift is obscure. The people did not receive anything upon forcibly parting with the calf.
Commentary:
The invading military force would transport the golden calf to Assyria, where it would be presented as a gift or as tribute to the monarch. Ephraim, as elsewhere in Hosea, represents the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. The loss of the calf would have been a reason for shame. It proved that the worship associated therewith had not benefited the people.
Israel’s counsel may refer to the formulation of the plan to get out from under subservience to Assyria by soliciting aid from Egypt. (2 Kings 17:3, 4) This counsel failed in achieving the desired objective. Assyria commenced punitive action and conquered Samaria, bringing an end to the ten-tribe kingdom. (2 Kings 17:5, 6) Israel, therefore, had reason to be greatly ashamed on account of the horrific consequences from the bad counsel.
Masoretic Text: Cut off [will be] Samaria, her king like a twig upon the surface of the waters. Septuagint: Samaria has cast off her king like a stick upon the surface of the water. Notes:
According to the reading of the Septuagint, the people of Samaria or the Israelites generally had rejected their king, treating him like a worthless stick floating on the surface of water. This could refer to any of one of the four kings (Zechariah, Shallum, Pekahiah and Pekah) who were assassinated. (2 Kings 15:10, 14, 25, 30)
In the Masoretic Text, there is no conjunction between “Samaria” and “her king,” and the participial form of the Hebrew word for “cut off” is not directly linked to Samaria. Numerous translators have added the conjunction “and” or chosen renderings that refer both to Samaria and its king. “Samaria and its king will float away like a twig on the surface of the waters.” (NIV) “Samaria will be cut off with her king like a stick on the surface of the water.” (NASB) “Samaria will be cut off, and its king will disappear like a chip of wood on an ocean wave.” (NLT) “Israel will be destroyed; its king will be like a chip of wood floating on the water.” (NCV) “Samaria and its king will be lost like a piece of wood on the water.” (NLB) “Samaria and her king float away, like a twig on the water.” (NJB) Samaria wird vernichtet, sein König gleicht einem abgebrochenen Zweig auf dem Wasser. (Samaria will be destroyed, its king is like a broken-off branch on the water.) (Einheitsübersetzung, German)
Other translators render the verse as applying only to the king. “Samaria’s monarchy is vanishing like foam upon water.” (Tanakh) “The king of Samaria shall disappear, like foam upon the waters.” (NAB) “Like a twig in a stream, the king of Samaria will be swept away.” (CEV) “Samaria’s king shall perish like a chip on the face of the waters.” (NRSV) “As for Samaria, her king is cut off, as foam upon the water.” (Margolis) “Their king will be carried off, like a chip of wood on water.” (GNT, Second Edition)
In this context, there is uncertainty about the significance of the form of the Hebrew word (qétseph) that has been translated “twig,” “foam,” and “chip.” The Brown-Driver-Briggs lexicon gives “splinter” as a probable meaning.
Commentary:
The monarchy is linked to the capital. Therefore, the overthrow of Samaria meant that no king would continue reigning there. Apparently the pathetic demise of the king is likened to the fate of worthless debris carried away by moving water.
Masoretic Text: And the high places of Aven will be destroyed—the sin of Israel. Thorn and thistle will overgrow their altars. And they will say to the mountains, “Cover us,” and to the hills, “Fall upon us.” Septuagint: And the shrines of On will be removed—the sins of Israel. Thorns and thistles will overgrow their altars. And they will say to the mountains, “Cover us,” and to the hills, “Fall upon us.” Note:
Commentary:
The high places were cultic sites, where the Israelites engaged in debased idolatrous practices, including ceremonial prostitution, drunkenness, and child sacrifice. (2 Kings 17:16, 17; Amos 2:7, 8) As locations for committing serious sins, the high places proved to be sin.
Aven appears to be an abbreviated form of Beth-aven, the name Hosea used with apparent reference to Bethel. (See comments on 10:5.)
In the fulfillment of the prophetic words, the Assyrians devastated the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom, including the high places. As a result, the neglected altars would have become overgrown with thorny plants and thistles.
In view of what was to befall the Israelites at the hands of the ruthless Assyrians, they would desperately wish to escape the horrors of war. If it were possible, they would prefer to have the mountains and hills bury them in order not to experience the dire consequences from fierce military action.
Masoretic Text: From the days of Gibeah you have sinned, Israel. There they took their stand. Did not war overtake them at Gibeah, [war] upon the sons of unrighteousness? Septuagint: From when [there were] the hills, Israel has sinned. There they stood. Will not war positively overtake them on the hill, [war] upon the children of iniquity? Note:
In the Septuagint, the use of two different words for “not” serves to intensify the negative and may be understood as meaning “definitely not,” “positively not,” or “absolutely not.”
The obscurity of this verse has led to a variety of renderings. Numerous translators have rendered the last phrase as a question, but not all have chosen the same tense. It appears that, among the various renderings, a question in the past tense best fits the context. “Did not war overtake the evildoers in Gibeah?” (NIV) “Was it not right that the wicked men of Gibeah were attacked?” (NLT)
Commentary:
During the time judges administered affairs, Gibeah became infamous because of a shocking sex crime. A mob of men from the city intended to rape a Levite who, with his concubine and servant, was planning to stay overnight in the home of a hospitable old man. In apparent desperation, the Levite turned his concubine over to the men. They so abused her all night that she died in the morning. (Judges 19:12-28)
Those who then “stood” or “took their stand” are not identified. The reference could be to the Benjamites who, in response to the request of the representatives from the other tribes, refused to hand over the guilty ones for deserved punishment and prepared for military action against their fellow Israelites. (Judges 20:12-14)
Two attempts to defeat the Benjamites failed. In the third attempt, however, the other tribes of Israel prevailed, destroyed Gibeah and nearly exterminated the entire tribe of Benjamin. (Judges 20:17-21:3) Historically, war did overtake the “sons of unrighteousness,” the perpetrators of the sex crime in Gibeah. Therefore, when the last phrase is rendered as a question, the answer would be that war did indeed reach them. This answer would then suggest that, similarly, the sinful people of the ten-tribe kingdom would not escape war, which would be an expression of divine judgment against them.
Masoretic Text: In my desire, I will also chastise them, and peoples will be gathered against them, binding them for their two iniquities. Septuagint: He came to discipline them, and peoples will be gathered against them to discipline them for their two iniquities. Notes:
Translators have variously rendered this verse. In the Tanakh, the verse is rearranged, connected to the words of the previous verse, and the “harnessing” or “binding” is linked to the portrayal of a heifer (verse 11). “Shall they not be overtaken by a war upon scoundrels as peoples gather against them? When I chose [them], I broke them in, harnessing them for two furrows.”
Other translators have taken fewer liberties in an effort to convey a meaningful thought. “When I please, I will punish them; nations will be gathered against them to put them in bonds for their double sin.” (NIV) “I will come against the wayward people to punish them; and nations shall be gathered against them when they are punished for their double iniquity.” (NRSV; in part, this follows closer to the LXX reading) “When it is My desire, I will chastise them; and the peoples will be gathered against them when they are bound for their double guilt.” (NASB)
Some have understood this verse as applying to what happened in Gibeah. This significance is reflected in translations using the past tense. “Against the wanton people I came and I chastised them; I gathered troops against them when I chastised them for their two crimes.” (NAB) According to this rendering, the “wanton people” would be the perpetrators of the shocking sex crime in Gibeah of Benjamin. The “troops gathered against them” would then be the other tribes of Israel to whom the Benjamites refused to surrender the guilty men for punishment. The two crimes could be (1) the flagrant refusal to be hospitable to the Levite and, instead, wanting to rape him and (2) the abuse of his concubine. (Compare Ezekiel 16:49, where Sodom is also revealed to have been a place where no help was provided to those in need.) Or, the abuse of the concubine could be regarded as two iniquities—rape and murder. The Septuagint, however, does not support using the past tense. Its reading definitely points to a future development.
The opening words of the Septuagint could be understood to mean that YHWH came to execute judgment, and the means by which this judgment would be executed is next identified as the peoples who would be gathered against the Israelites.
Commentary:
The people of the ten-tribe kingdom proved to be unfaithful to YHWH. Seemingly for this reason, his desire was to discipline or chastise them. The means for doing so would be other peoples, evidently their military forces. Whereas the enemy invasions led to a tremendous loss of life, not all of the Israelites perished. Possibly the “harnessing” or “binding” refers to the survivors who would be bound as captives and taken into exile. The Contemporary English Version makes this thought explicit: “Now I have decided to send nations to attack and put you in chains.”
The context does not identify the two iniquities, errors, or sins. They could be (1) the revolt against the royal house of David and (2) the institution of calf worship. (1 Kings 12:16-20, 26-33; 2 Chronicles 13:5-9) Another possibility is that the two sins were (1) forsaking YHWH and (2) adopting calf worship. (Compare Jeremiah 2:13.) Jeroboam established two centers for calf worship, one at Dan and the other at Bethel, and this is yet another possible reason for the mention of two iniquities.
Masoretic Text: And Ephraim [is] a trained heifer loving to thresh. And I passed over her fair neck. I will make Ephraim to be ridden; Judah will plow; Jacob will harrow for himself. Septuagint: Ephraim [is] a heifer trained to love strife, but I will come upon the fairest [part] of her neck. I will put [a yoke] upon Ephraim and will ignore Judah. Jacob will strengthen himself against him. Note:
Commentary:
Ephraim, as the dominant tribe, represents the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. Apparently with reference to the time when the kingdom found itself in a strong and prosperous state, Ephraim was like a heifer that enjoyed threshing. This agricultural operation was comparatively easy and permitted the heifer to feed on the grain. (Compare Deuteronomy 25:4.) In expression of his judgment against the people for their unfaithfulness, however, YHWH would effect a change.
The expression about passing over the neck has been translated to convey two basic meanings. (1) The neck of the threshing heifer was unencumbered by a yoke. “I spared her fair neck.” (NRSV) (2) A yoke would be placed upon the neck. “I decided to put a yoke on her beautiful neck and to harness her for harder work.” (GNT, Second Edition) “I placed a yoke upon her sleek neck.” (Tanakh)
The “riding” of Ephraim is probably to be understood of being placed in a position of humiliating submission. Translators have variously rendered the Hebrew word for “ride.” “I will drive Ephraim.” (NIV) “I will make Ephraim do advance plowing.” (Tanakh) “I will make Ephraim break the ground.” (NRSV) “Ephraim was to be harnessed.” (NAB) Historically, the reference likely is to the consequences from Israel’s coming, by YHWH’s permission, under the heavy Assyrian yoke, which eventually led to the devastation of the land and the exile of the surviving Israelites.
Judah’s plowing evidently is descriptive of hard labor without any rewards. This also pointed to a future punitive judgment for unfaithfulness.
Jacob could either represent the people of the ten-tribe kingdom or all the tribes. They would be forced to harrow, breaking up the clods. This would signify performing slavish labor without any refreshing benefits. Foreign oppression and humiliating military defeats brought “Jacob” into such an undesirable situation.
Masoretic Text: Sow for yourselves in righteousness. Reap according to loyalty. Till for yourselves untilled ground. And the time to seek YHWH [is] until he will come and rain righteousness on you. Septuagint: Sow for yourselves in righteousness. Reap [the] fruit of life. Light for yourselves the light of knowledge. Seek the Lord until the fruit of righteousness comes to you. Note:
Commentary:
By living upright lives in attitude, word, and action, the Israelites would be heeding the directive to sow righteousness or to “sow in righteousness,” that is, in the realm of righteousness. The fruitage from such sowing would be according to loyalty, graciousness, kindness or mercy. (Regarding the significance of chésed, the Hebrew word that can mean “loyalty,” see 4:1.) This may be understood to mean that the ones sowing would become the recipients of YHWH’s abiding loyalty or kindness, which would be evident in his loving care and guidance.
For the Israelites to till uncultivated ground evidently refers to their preparing themselves to be receptive to YHWH’s guidance, ridding themselves of everything that would hinder the production of good fruit in the form of commendable conduct and actions. It was then a time to seek YHWH, wanting to be recognized by him as approved and to share in the blessings to be bestowed at his coming for judgment. He would then rain righteousness on all whom he found in an approved condition. This likely refers to YHWH’s upholding his righteousness and acting in keeping with his promise to bless those who live in harmony with his commands. The outpouring of blessings would be abundant, comparable to a refreshing downpour of rain.
Masoretic Text: You have plowed wickedness. You have reaped iniquity. You have eaten the fruit of falsehood, for you have trusted in your way, in the multitude of your warriors. Septuagint: Why have you ignored impiety and reaped its iniquities? You have eaten deceptive fruit, for you have trusted in your chariots, in the abundance of your strength. Notes:
The Septuagint rendering for the first part of this verse is a question, calling upon the Israelites to answer why they had chosen a course that did not benefit them. They had ignored ungodliness, passing it over in silence instead of taking a firm stand against it. This led to a harvest of iniquities, that is, all manner of injurious, debased, corrupt, and unjust practices.
The Masoretic Text makes no mention of chariots, as does the Septuagint. A number of translations either follow the reading of the Septuagint or call attention to it in footnotes. “Because you have trusted in your chariots.” (NAB, Tanakh, footnote)
Commentary:
Plowing transforms uncultivated soil into a field suitable for sowing. The Israelites, however, did not make the desirable changes that plowing effects and which would have been a major step in producing good fruitage. Instead, wickedness characterized their cultivation process, and this only produced iniquity, injustice, or moral decay. The fruit of their reaping and from which they drew their strength proved to be nourishment of falsehood, for it deluded them. The Israelites considered themselves in a safe position, relying on lifeless deities and military might. They abandoned YHWH as the dependable source of aid, guidance, and protection and chose their own ways—idolatrous practices and forming alliances. The “warriors” in whom they trusted for protection would have included the “valiant men” from other nations with whom they had made alliances.
Masoretic Text: And an uproar will arise among your people, and all of your fortified cities will be devastated, like Shalman’s devastation of Beth-arbel in the day of war; a mother upon [her] sons was dashed [to the ground]. Septuagint: And destruction will arise among your people, and all your walled places will be destroyed. As [in the time of] the ruler Salaman out of the house of Jerobaal, in the days of war, they dashed [to the ground] a mother upon [her] children. Notes:
Neither Shalman (Salaman) nor Beth-arbel can be identified with any degree of certainty. All identifications are merely conjectures.
Perhaps Shalman is an abbreviation for Shalmaneser. Even among those who have offered this suggestion, there is no general agreement about which Shalmaneser it might be. One possibility is the Assyrian monarch who undertook punitive action against Israelite king Hoshea. (2 Kings 17:3, 4)
An inscription of Assyrian monarch Tiglath-pileser III mentions the Moabite king Salamanu. Footnotes in a number of translations mention this Moabite king as a possible identification for Shalman. (CEV, NAB, TOB [French])
A footnote in the Tanakh suggests that the reference may be to Shallum. (2 Kings 15:10) Although no atrocities are ascribed to Shallum against women and children upon his assassinating Zechariah and seizing the throne, Menahem, the next usurper, did make himself guilty of such brutality. (2 Kings 15:16)
One common suggestion is that Beth-arbel may have been a city in Gilead. The Septuagint rendering of the Hebrew Beth-arbel is according to the meaning of the Hebrew “Beth” (house) and a seeming transliteration of “arbel” (Jerobaal or, based on other Septuagint manuscript evidence, Jeroboam).
Commentary:
The “uproar” among the people likely designates the tumult resulting from ruthless military action. In the Septuagint, the reference is to destruction. In the fulfillment, the Assyrian punitive campaign devastated the ten-tribe kingdom. The invaders destroyed fortified cities and ruthlessly killed women and children.
In this case, “mother” may be a collective singular, referring to all the mothers who would perish. Hosea’s mentioning Shalman as an example of what lay ahead for the Israelites suggests that this ruler’s brutal action must have been in the people’s recent memory. The sons or children may have been killed first, possibly by being dashed against rocks. Afterwards, the “mother” perished in the same gruesome way on top of her sons or children.
Masoretic Text: Thus he will do to you, Bethel, because of the evil, your evil. In [the morning] twilight being cut off, [yes] cut off, the king of Israel will be. Septuagint: Thus I will do to you, house of Israel, from the face of your evils. [At] dawn they were cast out; the king of Israel was cast out. Notes:
The opening words of the Masoretic Text have been rendered either as meaning the calamity to befall Bethel or the adverse judgment to be experienced by the Israelites on account of Bethel (with apparent reference to the city’s being a center of calf worship). The reason for the difference is that the third person verb is regarded as meaning “he will do” or as having Bethel as the subject (Bethel will do). Examples are: “So shall it be done to you, Bethel.” (NAB) “Thus will it happen to you, O Bethel.” (NIV) “Thus it shall be done to you, O Bethel.” (NRSV) “So shall Bethel do unto you.” (Darby) “So Bethel will do to you.” (NJB) “This is what Bethel has done to you.” (Tanakh)
According to the rendering of the Septuagint, YHWH is the one who acts against the Israelites. The people of the entire ten-tribe kingdom experienced the severe judgment YHWH executed by means of the Assyrians, and so the Septuagint rendering “house of Israel” fits the historical context better. The expression “from the face of your evils” apparently is to be understood to mean “on account of your evils.”
The repetition of the Hebrew word for “evil” (ra’) denotes evil to the superlative degree. This is reflected in the renderings of various translations—“utter wickedness” (NAB), “great wickedness” (NRSV), and “horrible wickedness” (Tanakh).
In the Masoretic Text, the infinitive form of the word for “cut off” (damáh) is followed by the verb form of “cut off,” the repetition signifying “surely cut off.” Although the Septuagint repeats the verb (aporrípto) meaning “cast out,” “throw away,” “reject,” or “abandon,” the significance differs from the Masoretic Text.
Commentary:
The preferable meaning of the Masoretic Text may be to consider “he” or YHWH as the One taking the action. Just as Beth-arbel experienced the horrors of war, so Bethel would not escape a similar fate. YHWH would permit this destruction to come upon Bethel on account of its great evil, evidently all the debased practices associated with calf worship.
Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint indicate that the king would come to his end. Perhaps the Hebrew text is to be understood as meaning that swiftly and unexpectedly, as in the brief time between morning twilight and sunrise, the king would be “cut off” or destroyed. The Septuagint reading may mean that the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom found themselves “cast out” from their land quickly and unexpectedly, and the king had been forcibly deprived of his position. So certain was this that it could be spoken of as an accomplished fact.
Masoretic Text: When Israel [was] an infant, then I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son. Septuagint: For Israel [was] an infant, and I loved him, and out of Egypt I called his children. Notes:
The Hebrew word ná‘ar can refer to an infant, a little boy, a lad, or a youth, and the corresponding term (népios) in the Septuagint means “infant” or “child.”
The quotation in Matthew 2:15 corresponds to the reading of the Masoretic Text, not the extant Septuagint rendering. According to the reading of the Septuagint, YHWH called the children or descendants of Israel out of Egypt.
In Matthew 2:15, the verb for “called” is a form of kaléo, but in the Hosea passage it is a form of metakaléo (the prefix metá meaning “with”). Forms of the verb metakaléo are only found in Hosea (11:1, 2) and Acts (7:14; 10:32; 20:17; 24:25). Based on the passages in Acts, the verb conveys the sense of summoning or calling from one location to another.
Commentary:
Israel’s time of infancy or youth evidently refers to the time prior to his coming into existence as a nation. YHWH loved this infant, child, or youth. In expression of that love, he delivered him from enslavement in Egypt. When requesting the release of the Israelites, Moses was directed to convey to Pharaoh YHWH’s word that Israel was his son, his firstborn. (Exodus 4:22, 23) The unique Son of God, the firstborn or preeminent Son in the absolute sense, was also called out of Egypt, and this is the application of Hosea’s words found in Matthew 2:15.
Masoretic Text: They called them, so they went [away] from their faces. They sacrificed to the Baals, and they burned incense to the idols. Septuagint: As I have called them, thus they have gone away from my face. They sacrificed to the Baals, and they offered incense to the carved [images]. Notes:
The obscurity of the Masoretic Text can be cleared up by considering the calling of the Israelites to have been that of the prophets. Numerous translations, however, commonly follow the Septuagint, using the first person singular instead of the third person plural. “The more I called them, the farther they went from me.” (NAB) “But the more I called Israel, the further they went from me.” (NIV) “The more I called them, the more they went from me.” (NRSV)
Both in Hebrew and Greek, the word for “face” can mean “person” or the person’s presence.
Commentary:
YHWH repeatedly called to Israel through his prophets, appealing to the people to change their ways and to seek his guidance, aid, and blessing. Although hearing the repeated proclamations, the Israelites disregarded the prophets and the One whom they represented. They distanced themselves from the prophets and from YHWH, choosing the course that was contrary to the messages directed to them. Instead of seeking to live up to their covenant obligations, the Israelites sacrificed and burned incense to the Baals, the fertility deities associated with a multitude of cultic sites throughout the realm of the ten-tribe kingdom.
Masoretic Text: And I taught Ephraim to walk; I took [him] by his arms. And they did not know that I healed them. Septuagint: And I bound [the] feet of Ephraim; I took him upon my arm. And they did not know that I had healed them. Notes:
Translators have rendered the Masoretic Text to mean that Ephraim was taken by his arms or, according to the Septuagint reading, was carried in YHWH’s arms. “It was I who taught Ephraim to walk, taking them by the arms.” (NIV) “And I, I taught Ephraim to walk, taking them by their arms.” (Margolis) “I took them up in my arms.” (NRSV) “I have pampered Ephraim, taking them in My arms.” (Tanakh) “Yet it was I who taught Ephraim to walk, who took them in my arms.” (NAB)
The Greek word for “binding feet” is sympodízo and may be understood of binding the feet of a little child with swaddling bands to keep it from walking away and getting hurt.
Commentary:
Ephraim, the dominant tribe, represented the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel and is here depicted as a little boy. YHWH, like a loving parent, took hold of his arms and enabled him to take his first steps or, according to the reading of the Septuagint, carried him upon his arm (as one would carry a tired toddler). The people of the ten-tribe kingdom, however, did not “know” or recognize YHWH as the One who had lovingly cared for them, healing or strengthening them when they were in a weak and helpless position. Their actions, particularly their idolatrous practices, revealed that they treated YHWH disrespectfully, as if they were not accountable to him as their God.
Masoretic Text: With cords of a man, I drew them, with ropes of love. And so I was to them as those lifting a yoke from their jaws, and gently I fed him. Septuagint: In the destruction of men, I stretched them out in bands of my love. And I will be to them as [one] striking a man upon his cheeks. And I will look [attentively] toward him; I will prevail over him. Notes:
The extant Septuagint text departs considerably from the Masoretic Text. Perhaps the Septuagint reading may be understood as follows: YHWH extended love during a time when men were being killed. He would prove to be as one striking a man upon his cheeks, perhaps in taking a stand for his people. The one on whom YHWH would focus his attention and over whom he would prevail could be the one responsible for the destruction of human life. It is also possible to understand the Septuagint reference to mean “prevail with.” In that case, this could signify that YHWH would guide and protect his people, enabling them to prevail over their enemies.
Translators vary considerably in their renderings. Many stick closely to the Masoretic Text. “I drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love; and I was to them as they that take off the yoke on their jaws, and I fed them gently.” (Margolis) The Hebrew word ’ath has been defined as meaning “gently,” “slowly,” and “meekly.” It has also been interpreted to signify “with bowed head.” This meaning is found in other translations that are representative of the basic reading of the Masoretic Text. “I drew them with cords of a man, with ties of love; and I was to them like those who lift up the yoke on their necks; and I bent down to him and I fed him.” (NJB) “I led them with cords of human kindness, with ties of love; I lifted the yoke from their neck and bent down to feed them.” (NIV)
Numerous translators have introduced elements that are not found in the Masoretic Text. “I drew them with human cords, with bands of love; I fostered them like one who raises an infant to his cheeks; yet, though I stooped to feed my child, they did not know that I was their healer.” (NAB) “I led them with cords of human kindness, with bands of love. I was to them like those who lift infants to their cheeks. I bent down to them and fed them.” (NRSV) “I drew them with human ties, with cords of love; but I seemed to them as one who imposed a yoke on their jaws, though I was offering them food.” (Tanakh)
Commentary:
YHWH did not treat his people like unreasoning animals, but the cords he used to guide them were suited for humans. Paralleling the expression “cords of a man” are the words “ropes of love,” pointing to YHWH’s dealing with the Israelites in a loving, caring way. He provided them with the guiding “ropes” that would benefit them. His action toward them was comparable to what is done when making it easier for a draft animal to feed. The yoke is lifted off or moved back far enough so that it does not affect the movement of the jaws. As a consequence, the feeding would be done gently.
Masoretic Text: He will not return to the land of Egypt, and an Assyrian—he [will be] his king, for they refused to return. Septuagint: Ephraim resided in Egypt, and Assyria—he [will be] his king, for he did not want to return. Notes:
The Masoretic Text has been translated to mean that Ephraim will not return to Egypt or as a question implying that Ephraim would return to that land. “He shall not return into the land of Egypt, but the Assyrian shall be his king, because they refused to return.” (Margolis) “Will they not return to Egypt and will not Assyria rule over them because they refuse to repent?” (NIV)
The Septuagint does not include a word for “not” and refers to Ephraim’s residence in Egypt as a past event. This could apply to the time before the liberation from enslavement there.
Like the Septuagint, numerous translations omit the word for “not.” “He shall return to the land of Egypt, and Assyria shall be his king.” (NAB) “They shall return to the land of Egypt, and Assyria shall be their king.” (NRSV) The Tanakh separates the “No” from the rest of the words and thus conveys the same basic meaning. “No! They return to the land of Egypt, and Assyria is their king.”
Commentary:
The subject is still Ephraim, the dominant tribe representing the ten-tribe kingdom. His not returning to Egypt ruled out any repetition of the former enslavement there or meant that any return to Egypt for military assistance against Assyria would become impossible. King Hoshea did seek help from Egypt in an attempt to free the realm from being under Assyrian control, but the effort failed. The Assyrian monarch launched a punitive military campaign, which terminated in the capture of Samaria and the overthrow of the ten-tribe kingdom. (2 Kings 17:3-6) All possibility of returning to Egypt for aid was cut off once the Assyrian campaign started, and Ephraim or the ten-tribe kingdom came under the domination of the Assyrian king. The Assyrian continued to be the king over the Israelite survivors who were exiled. This resulted because the people did not return to YHWH, failing to repent of their wrong course, to abandon idolatry, and to seek his aid, guidance, and protection.
Masoretic Text: And a sword will go round in his cities and destroy his bars, and devour, because of their counsels. Septuagint: And the sword weakened in his cities and stopped working in his hands, and they will eat from their schemes. Notes:
The Hebrew word bad, translated “bar,” has a variety of meanings. It can refer to a “part,” “portion” or “member”; “solitude”; a “pole” or “shoot”; “cloth” (likely linen); “loose talk,” and, according to some, an “oracle priest.” This accounts for the various renderings—“bars” (NIV), “limbs” (Tanakh), “oracle-priests” (NRSV), and “solitudes” (NAB).
The rendering of the Septuagint suggests that Ephraim, or the ten-tribe kingdom, would be unable to defend himself and experience the bitter consequences from his schemes.
Commentary:
The cities of Ephraim, or the ten-tribe kingdom, would face the sword. In the fulfillment, the Assyrian forces captured the cities, broke the bars of the city gates, and thus consumed the people of the ten-tribe kingdom. The counsels, plans, or schemes of the Israelite monarch and the lesser officials proved to be the reason for the disastrous end of the ten-tribe kingdom. At the very beginning of the kingdom’s existence, the initial counsel that Jeroboam followed basically sealed the realm’s eventual doom. To prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem for worship and again wanting to be united under one king from the royal line of David, Jeroboam instituted calf worship at Dan and Bethel. (1 Kings 12:26-33) During the time of Hosea’s prophesying, the counsel to seek the support of Egypt to be free from the Assyrian yoke led to the overthrow of the ten-tribe kingdom and the exile of the surviving Israelites. (2 Kings 17:3-6)
Masoretic Text: And my people hang on to apostasy from me. Upwards they call [them]. Together, [they] will not rise. Septuagint: And his people are adhering to his habitation, and God will be angered over his precious [things], and he will definitely not exalt [them]. Notes:
The Masoretic Text is obscure, giving rise to various interpretive renderings. “And My people are in suspense about returning to Me; and though they call them upwards, none at all will lift himself up.” (Margolis) “For My people persists in its defection from Me; when it is summoned upward, it does not rise at all.” (Tanakh) “My people are determined to turn from me. Even if they call to the Most High, he will by no means exalt them.” (NIV) “My people are bent on turning away from me. To the Most High they call, but he does not raise them up at all.” (NRSV) “His people are in suspense about returning to him; and God, though in unison they cry out to him, shall not raise them up.” (NAB)
In the Septuagint, two different words for “not” convey the sense of “definitely not,” “positively not,” “surely not,” or “absolutely not.”
Like the reading of the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint rendering is obscure. The following is a highly interpretive possible meaning of the extant text: Because the Israelites had forsaken YHWH, the habitation to which they adhered could be Bethel (house of God), the center for calf worship to which they wrongly appear to have linked his name. (Compare Exodus 32:3-6; 1 Kings 12:28-32; 2 Kings 17:26-28.) The people trampled upon what YHWH considered precious things—everything associated with pure worship and upright conduct. Therefore, his anger respecting these precious things would be aroused, and this would lead to the execution of his judgment against them. YHWH would not exalt the disobedient people, elevating them to a status of dignity before him and responding to their cries for aid.
Commentary:
The Israelites clung to their apostasy, their having turned away from YHWH to pursue the veneration of lifeless deities. Evidently through his prophets, YHWH called the people to rise from their debased condition, their state of moral decay stemming from idolatry. Together, or as a people, the Israelites did not repent, preferring to remain in their degraded condition.
Masoretic Text: How can I give you up, Ephraim; hand you over, Israel? How can I make you like Admah and set you like Zeboim? My heart has changed within me; together, my compassions have been warmed. Septuagint: How can I treat you, Ephraim; shield you, Israel? How can I treat you—make you like Admah and like Zeboim? My heart has been changed [within me]; my regret has been stirred up. Commentary:
Ephraim, or the people of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, had strayed from YHWH. On account of their idolatrous practices and wayward conduct, the Israelites were deserving of severe punishment. YHWH, however, still loved them. The question was, How could he possibly give them up or hand them over for complete annihilation, without any hope of recovery?
When Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed, the cities of Admah and Zeboim shared the same fate. (Deuteronomy 29:23 [22]) The question in this verse of Hosea implies that YHWH could not possibly do this to Ephraim or Israel.
In his heart, within himself, YHWH had changed toward his people, not wanting to execute the severe judgment they merited. All his compassions had been warmed toward them, indicating that his tender feelings had been aroused. Therefore, although the adverse judgment would befall the Israelites, YHWH would extend mercy, leaving them with the opportunity to repent and to be restored to his favor.
Masoretic Text: I will not act in the heat of my anger. I will not return to destroy Ephraim, for I [am] God and not man, the Holy [One] in your midst, and I will not enter into a city. Septuagint: By no means will I do according to the anger of my fury. By no means will I forsake Ephraim to be wiped out, for I am God and not man, the Holy [One] among you, and I will not enter into a city. Note:
Commentary:
This is YHWH’s assurance that Ephraim or the people of the ten-tribe kingdom would not experience the full intensity of his anger for their unfaithfulness. They would not be destroyed to the point of having no survivors and no hope of ever being restored to a state of divine favor. Although the judgment would come, YHWH’s returning would not be for the purpose of completely annihilating Ephraim. Unlike a man who might act impulsively and ruthlessly destroy, YHWH would never do so. He is God, not an untrustworthy man who vents uncontrolled passion. As the Holy One, the One who acts consistently according to the highest standard of purity, he would not abandon the people totally and permanently. He remained in their midst in the sense that the Israelites could still gain his favorable attention by repenting and abandoning their wayward ways.
The reference to YHWH’s not entering a city may be understood of his not doing so for the purpose of destroying it permanently (as in the case of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboim). Numerous modern translations depart from the literal reading of the Masoretic Text, not including the point about a city. “I will not come in wrath.” (NIV, NRSV) “I will not let the flames consume you.” (NAB)
Masoretic Text: After YHWH they will go. Like a lion, he will roar. When he will roar, the sons from the west will also tremble. Septuagint: After the Lord I will go. Like a lion he will growl, for he will roar, and the children of the waters will be astonished. Notes:
The Septuagint first person verb for “I will go” may be understood to refer to the determination expressed by the repentant Israelites as a corporate whole.
The Mediterranean Sea bordered Israel’s land on the west. Therefore, the word for “sea” (yam) can, depending on the context, also mean “west.” The Septuagint reading “waters” seemingly reflects the meaning “sea.”
Commentary:
Among the Israelites who were dispersed on account of the conquest of the ten-tribe kingdom, a portion of them would repent and seek YHWH’s favor. Evidently they are the ones who would be going “after YHWH,” desiring to conform to his commands.
His roaring like a lion may be descriptive of action taken against the enemies of his people. That awesome “roaring” would even cause the repentant Israelites to tremble, for YHWH’s breaking the power of the enemy through his chosen means would be fear-inspiring.
Among the scattered Israelites, many would eventually find themselves west of their homeland. They are depicted as returning in a state of “trembling” or, according to the reading of the Septuagint, a state of “astonishment,” probably because of YHWH’s having delivered them.
Masoretic Text: They will tremble like a bird from Egypt and like a dove from the land of Assyria, and I will settle them in their houses, [is the] announcement of YHWH. Septuagint: And they will be startled like a bird from Egypt and like a dove from the land of the Assyrians, and I will restore them to their houses, says the Lord. Note:
Commentary:
The end of the ten-tribe kingdom led to exile and the scattering of the surviving Israelites. Repentant ones would find themselves in Egypt and the territory formerly controlled by Assyria. As a dove or another kind of bird may be startled or be made to tremble, the repentant people would be trembling on account of YHWH’s fear-inspiring act that opened the way for their return. With trembling, they would undertake the journey back to their homeland. YHWH promised that they would be able to occupy homes in their own land.
Masoretic Text: Ephraim [has] surrounded me with falsehood, and the house of Israel with deceit. And Judah roams with God and, with holy ones, [is] trustworthy. Septuagint: Ephraim has surrounded me with falsehood, and the house of Israel and Judah with impiety. Now God does know them, and the holy people will be called God’s. Notes:
The expression translated “holy ones” could apply to YHWH, with the plural being a plural of excellence. This would mean that Holy One parallels God and could be understood to mean that YHWH is trustworthy. The other possibility is that Judah proved to be faithful.
If “holy ones” denotes people, the expression may apply to the prophets. During his reign, Hezekiah and the people of Judah heeded the prophetic word. (Compare Isaiah 37:1-7; Jeremiah 26:18, 19.) A number of translations do preserve the plural. “Judah still wanders with El and is faithful to holy ones.” (HCSB) “Judah still rules with God and is faithful with the saints.” (Jay P. Green) Darby, in his translation, applied the expression to “things,” not “people” — “holy things of truth.”
According to the Septuagint reading, both Israel and Judah conducted themselves in an ungodly manner. This reading may support the conclusion that, in the Masoretic Text, “faithfulness” or “trustworthiness” is attributed to YHWH, the Holy One.
For the second half of the verse, the Septuagint differs considerably from the Masoretic Text. YHWH did indeed know the people and what motivated them to speak and to act. Only those whom he approved would be recognized as holy people.
Commentary:
Ephraim and Israel here are parallel expressions and refer to the people of the ten-tribe kingdom. The Israelites had failed to live up to their covenant obligations. In times of distress, their appeals to YHWH were insincere and not prompted by a desire to conform to his commands. Their expressions were numerous (as if surrounding YHWH), but they were false or deceptive. The way many treated the poor and afflicted among them revealed the degree of their departure from YHWH.
The people in the two-tribe kingdom of Judah appear to have been acknowledging YHWH at the time. This may have been during the reign of Hezekiah. Perhaps, therefore, the reference is to the people’s trustworthiness or faithfulness to YHWH, the Holy One. A number of translations convey this meaning. “Ephraim has surrounded me with lies, and the house of Israel with deceit, but Judah still walks with God and is faithful to the Holy One.” (ESV) “Ephraim has surrounded me with lies, and the house of Israel with deceit; but Judah still walks with God, and is faithful to the Holy One.” (NRSV) “Ephraim surrounds Me with deceit, the House of Israel with guile. (But Judah stands firm with God and is faithful to the Holy One.)” (Tanakh)
Like the Septuagint, other translations portray Judah also in a negative light. “Ephraim has surrounded me with lies, and the house of Israel with deceit. And Judah is unruly against God, even against the faithful Holy One.” (NIV) “Ephraim has surrounded me with lies, the house of Israel, with deceit; Judah is still rebellious against God, against the Holy One, who is faithful.” (NAB)
Masoretic Text: Ephraim is feeding [on] wind and pursuing an east wind all day. He increases deception and violence. And he concluded a covenant with Assyria, and oil is carried to Egypt. Septuagint: But Ephraim [has] an evil spirit. He pursued a scorching wind the whole day. He increased empty things and vanities. And he made a covenant with the Assyrians and traded oil in Egypt. Notes:
Both the Hebrew (rúach) and the Greek (pneúma) word for “spirit” can also mean “wind.” In the Septuagint, there is no verb, and so Ephraim may be described as having an evil spirit (a strong inclination to engage in evil practices) or as being an evil wind (an unfavorable or destructive wind).
The Hebrew idiom for concluding a covenant—“cutting a covenant”—points to the means by which the agreement was made. Animals were sacrificed and cut in half, and the parties to the covenant passed between the pieces. (Compare Genesis 15:9-11, 17, 18; Jeremiah 34:18, 19)
Commentary:
Ephraim, the dominant tribe, represented the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom. The king and other high officials were responsible for efforts to form alliances with foreign powers. In this context, these efforts seemingly are compared to feeding on wind and pursuing the scorching wind that blows over the hot desert stretching to the east of the land of Israel. Wind does not consist of a solid substance. Therefore, Ephraim’s feeding on wind basically meant consuming nothingness. He simply would not be strengthened thereby as one would be from partaking of nourishing, substantial food. The pursuit of the east wind, a scorching wind, could only lead to destructive consequences. The east wind was never the source of refreshing rain but withered vegetation. Historically, Ephraim’s or Israel’s involvement in competing alliances with Assyria and Egypt prompted the Assyrians to take punitive action against the ten-tribe kingdom. With the Assyrian conquest of the capital Samaria, the ten-tribe kingdom came to its end. Ephraim had indeed foolishly pursued the “east wind.”
The people of the ten-tribe kingdom built up a sordid record of idolatry accompanied by a serious moral breakdown. Idolatry may also have been included as part of Ephraim’s feeding on wind and pursuing the east wind. YHWH abandoned the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom on account of their unfaithfulness, and so their attachment to idolatry brought about the kingdom’s end. In the ten-tribe kingdom, the poor often were victims of oppression or violence and fraud or deception. (Amos 2:6-8; 8:4-6) With the passage of time, deception and violence increased.
According to the reading of the Septuagint, the actions of “Ephraim” were empty and vain things. This could apply to their idolatry, military alliances, fraud, and oppression.
Although having concluded a covenant with Assyria, the king and other officials endeavored to have Egyptian support to liberate themselves from having to pay the costly tribute the king of Assyria had imposed. (2 Kings 17:3, 4) The olive oil Israelite envoys would carry to Egypt evidently was part of the price for gaining Egyptian support to free the ten-tribe kingdom from Assyrian domination.
Masoretic Text: YHWH [has] a case against Judah, and [he] will visit [judgment] upon Jacob according to his ways; he will repay him according to his actions. Septuagint: And the Lord [has] a case against Judah, to exact vengeance upon Jacob according to his ways, and he will repay him according to his practices. Commentary:
Judah represents the two-tribe southern kingdom. Although YHWH’s temple was in Jerusalem and priests of the Aaronic line and Levites served there, the people were often guilty of seriously transgressing his commands. As in the northern kingdom, idolatry was rampant, and the poor and disadvantaged frequently were the objects of cruel oppression and injustices. (Isaiah 1:17, 21-23; 5:8-12, 18-23; 59:13-15) The period of Hosea’s prophesying included the time when Ahaz ruled over the two-tribe kingdom. He and his subjects seriously violated their covenant obligations, engaging in large-scale idolatry and the abominable practice of child sacrifice. (2 Kings 16:3, 4; 2 Chronicles 28:1-4; compare Ezekiel 23:37-39) Therefore, YHWH did have a serious case against Judah, and the people were in line for severe judgment.
Jacob may either represent the people of the ten-tribe kingdom or, as the forefather of the nation, all the Israelites. YHWH’s visitation would be one for rendering punitive judgment. In keeping with their deeds and the manner in which the Israelites had conducted themselves, YHWH would administer the deserved punishment. Historically, the means by which YHWH repaid the people for their transgressions proved to be the military forces of other nations.
Masoretic Text: In the womb, he grabbed his brother by the heel and, by his strength, did strive with God. Septuagint: In the womb, he grabbed the heel of his brother and, in his struggles, gained strength with God. Commentary:
The Hebrew word for “heel” is ‘aqév, and the verb ‘aqáv means “seize or grab by the heel” or, figuratively, “supplant,” “betray,” “deceive,” “overreach,” or “assail.” When Rebekah was pregnant with the twins, the two struggled in the womb. At the time of the birth, the brother of the firstborn grasped him by the heel. For this reason, he was named Jacob (Ya‘qov), meaning “heel grabber.” (Genesis 25:22-26)
Decades later, while in the process of returning to the land of his birth, Jacob received the news that Esau, with 400 men, was on his way to meet him. Fearing the worst because of having obtained the birthright and the paternal blessing by resorting to devious means, Jacob carefully prepared for the encounter. He arranged for a gift to precede him and divided up his camp. (Genesis 32:3-21) After his wives and children forded the Jabbok, Jacob remained alone on the other side and found himself wrestling with a man. Eventually realizing that his opponent was no ordinary mortal but an angel, Jacob did not give up. (Genesis 32:22-24)
To this incident, the words of Hosea refer. In struggling with the angel, Jacob was contending with one who represented the Almighty. Therefore, Jacob was striving or contending with God. In connection with this event, Jacob’s name was changed to “Israel,” meaning “one who contends or perseveres with God.”
Masoretic Text: And he persevered with the angel, and he prevailed. He wept and implored favor of him. At Bethel, he found him, and there he spoke with us. Septuagint: And he gained strength with the angel and prevailed. They wept and entreated me. In the house of On, they found me, and there [it] was spoken to him. Notes:
The Septuagint reading is according to the meaning of “Beth” (house) and apparently “aven” (On), with a different vowel pointing than when “Beth-aven” appears elsewhere in the Masoretic Text. (Hosea 4:15; 5:8; 10:5) In this passage, however, the Masoretic Text reads “Bethel” (house of God).
Unlike the Masoretic Text with its main focus on Jacob, the Septuagint depicts the Israelites as weeping and imploring God. With reference to the speaking, however, the Septuagint reads “him” (Jacob), and many translators use “him” instead of “us” (the reading of the Masoretic Text). The rendering “him” also has the support of the Syriac.
Commentary:
Even with his hip out of joint and doubtless in severe pain, Jacob did not release his hold on the angel. Apparently with tears, he pleaded for a blessing. (Genesis 32:25, 26)
Later, at Bethel, YHWH, evidently through his representative angel, communicated with Jacob, confirming the change of the name from Jacob to Israel, assuring him that he would be the forefather of a nation and kings, and promising him that the land of Canaan would become the possession of his descendants. (Genesis 35:1, 9-15) Having gone to Bethel at divine direction, Jacob found YHWH, evidently because he was favored in hearing the representative angel speak to him. The words addressed to Jacob applied to his descendants and, in that sense, were spoken to the future generations of Israelites or, as the Masoretic Text reads, “there he spoke with us,” including Hosea and his Israelite contemporaries.
Masoretic Text: And YHWH, God of hosts—YHWH [is] his memorial. Septuagint: But the Lord, the God Almighty, will be his memorial. Note:
Commentary:
The One (evidently through the representative angel) with whom Jacob had his encounter at Bethel is identified as YHWH. This name reveals that the Almighty is no nameless higher power, unable to communicate his will and to accomplish his purpose. He has made known his name, represented by the four Hebrew letters Y (yod) H (he) W (waw) H (he). The significance of this name appears to be revealed in the words of Exodus 3:14—’ehyéh ’ashér ’ehyéh. Since ’ehyéh is in the imperfect state, the words may be understood to mean, “I will be who I will be.” This suggests that the Eternal One will always prove to be who he has made himself known to be. His name stands as an absolute guarantee that he will never come to be someone other than he is or than he has declared he would prove to be. His word, therefore, is deserving of complete trust and will never be the source of disappointment.
The expression “God of hosts” may denote that YHWH directed a mighty force of spirit persons, angels, to accomplish his purposes, including his saving acts. It is as YHWH that the Most High made himself known by marvelous acts of deliverance. Prominent among these were the liberation of the Israelites from Egypt and the destruction of Pharaoh’s military forces. In view of the associations of such stupendous events with the name YHWH, that name is his “memorial.”
Masoretic Text: And you, to your God you should return, observing loyalty and justice, and continually hoping for your God. Septuagint: And you, to your God you should return, guarding mercy and justice, and always hoping for your God. Note:
Commentary:
The admonition is directed to Ephraim or the people of the ten-tribe kingdom. They had strayed from YHWH, adopting idolatrous practices and in other ways seriously failing to live up to their covenant obligations. Therefore, they needed to repent and change their conduct, returning to YHWH as persons desirous of conforming to his commands and trusting him fully.
Often the poor and disadvantaged ones became victims of oppression and fraud. Many Israelites needed to change their attitude, responding with compassion to the needy ones among them and being concerned that the poor were treated justly and did not have their rights trampled upon.
The Israelites generally had become idolaters. They looked to fertility deities to secure plentiful harvests for them. The king and other high officials endeavored to assure the security of the realm by forming alliances with foreign powers. Instead of continuing to place their hope in lifeless deities and military alliances for their welfare and safety, the Israelites needed to hope in YHWH, always trusting him as the only One who could bless, aid, protect and rescue them.
Masoretic Text: A tradesman [holds] scales of deceit in his hand; he loves to oppress. Septuagint: Canaan [holds] unjust scales in his hand; he has loved to oppress. Note:
Commentary:
In the ten-tribe kingdom, tradesmen often used heavier weights for selling than they did when buying. (Amos 8:4-6) Therefore, the scales the merchant held in his hand proved to be false. Dishonest practices especially harmed the poor, and so the corrupt tradesman is referred to as loving oppression or exploitation.
Masoretic Text: And Ephraim said, “Certainly, I am rich. I have found wealth for myself. [In] all my labors, they, in me, will not find guilt, which [is] sin.” Septuagint: And Ephraim said, “Certainly, I am rich. I have found refreshment for myself.” None of his labors will found [available] to him because of the iniquities with which he sinned. Note:
Commentary:
The reference here must be to a time when Ephraim or the people of the ten-tribe kingdom enjoyed prosperity. They regarded themselves as rich, claiming that they had obtained wealth by their own power.
In the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, the aspect about not finding guilt or iniquities is obscure. It appears that, in the labors Ephraim (the people of the ten-tribe kingdom) performed to attain a prosperous state, he maintained that he would not be found guilty of serious sin. Translators have chosen various ways to make the passage more explicit than the Masoretic Text. “All my gains do not amount to an offense which is real guilt.” (Tanakh) “All his gain shall not suffice him for the guilt of his sin.” (NAB) “[I]n all of my gain no offense has been found in me that would be sin.” (NRSV) “With all my wealth they will not find in me any iniquity or sin.” (NIV) “I earned it all on my own, without committing a sin.” (CEV)
Masoretic Text: “And, from the land of Egypt, I [am] YHWH your God; yet I will make you dwell in tents, as in the days of the appointed [festival]. Septuagint: But I the Lord your God brought you up from the land of Egypt; yet I will make you dwell in tents, as [in] the day of the festival. Notes:
The Hebrew word mo‘éd means a set or appointed time or an appointed place of meeting and can also designate a festival.
Numerous translations make the reference to a time explicit. “I will again have you live in tents, as in that appointed time.” (NAB) “I will let you dwell in your tents again as in the days of old.” (Tanakh) “Now I will force you to live in tents once again, as you did in the desert.” (CEV) According to these renderings, the reference is to the experience of the Israelites while dwelling in tents during the time of their wilderness wanderings.
In the Septuagint, the reference is specifically to a festival. This is also the meaning that many other translations have adopted. “I will make you live in tents again, as in the days of the appointed festival.” (NASB; NRSV) “And I will make you live in tents again, as you do each year when you celebrate the Festival of Shelters.” (NLT)
Commentary:
YHWH delivered the Israelites from slavery in Egypt, thereby proving himself to be their God from the time they were there. Hosea’s Israelite contemporaries, however, had been disloyal to YHWH. Therefore, he would deprive them of their homes in the land and make them once again like nomadic tent dwellers. It was during the festival of booths (commemorating the experience of their forefathers while in the wilderness) that the Israelites lived in temporary shelters. Accordingly, their future dwelling would be as it was then. Historically, this did occur when the Assyrians overthrew the ten-tribe kingdom and exiled the surviving Israelites.
Masoretic Text: And I have spoken to the prophets, and I increased vision[s] and, by the hand of the prophets, used likenesses. Septuagint: And I will speak to the prophets, and I have increased visions; and by the hands of the prophets, I was likened. Commentary:
In expression of his loving concern for the Israelites, YHWH communicated his will and purpose to them, repeatedly appealing to them to abandon their wayward course. He directed his message to the prophets, using them as his spokesmen to the people. The prophets would see a vision, either in a dream or while in a trance. Visions increased in number, as YHWH continued to use this means to convey his message to the prophets. Another way in which he communicated his message was through likenesses. YHWH accomplished this “by the hand” or agency of the prophets. Hosea’s own tragic domestic life served as a vivid likeness, illustrating Israel’s unfaithfulness and YHWH’s justice, mercy, and love in dealing with his people.
Masoretic Text: If Gilead [is] nothingness, they surely are vanity. In Gilgal, they sacrifice bulls; also their altars [will be] like heaps in the furrows of a field. Septuagint: If Galaad is nothing, then the rulers were false [when] sacrificing in Galgal, and their altars [will be] like mounds upon a barren field. Notes:
Both the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint require the adding of verbs to convey something meaningful. This, however, has resulted in a variety of renderings.
The Hebrew word ’áwen has been defined as “disaster,” “trouble,” “sorrow,” “idolatry,” “deception,” and “nothingness.” Translators have variously rendered the word—“falsehood” (NAB), “worthless” (Tanakh), “iniquity” (Margolis, NRSV), “wicked” (NIV), and “terribly sinful” (CEV).
Commentary:
Gilead designates Israelite territory east of the Jordan River. As in the other parts of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, idolatry flourished there, making it a region of nothingness, worthlessness, or iniquity. As practicers of idolatry, the people amounted to nothing. They were vanity, and their sacrificing served no beneficial purpose.
Gilgal, a city in the ten-tribe kingdom, evidently functioned as a prominent center of idolatry. Therefore, YHWH would not have been pleased with the bulls that the people (rulers, according to the Septuagint) presented there for sacrifice. Based on the reading of the Septuagint, the rulers were false in their sacrificing, merely engaging in an empty ritual.
Neither the Masoretic Text nor the Septuagint provide the needed verbs to determine when the development regarding the altars would apply. The reference could be to the future desolation of the land. At that time, the neglected altars would be just heaps or mounds on barren land. “Bulls are sacrificed in Gilgal on altars made of stones, but those stones will be scattered in every field.” (CEV) “Their altars will be like piles of stones on a plowed field.” (NIV)
If the words pertain to the then-existing situation, the meaning could be that the altars amounted to nothing more than heaps or mounds. “The altars of these are also like stone heaps upon a plowed field.” (Tanakh)
Another possibility is that the description relates to the large number of these altars in the land. “Their altars are lined up like heaps of stone along the edges of a plowed field.” (NLT)
Masoretic Text: And Jacob fled to the field of Aram, and Israel served for a wife and, for a wife, watched [flocks]. Septuagint: And Jacob withdrew to the field of Syria, and Israel served for a wife and, for a wife, guarded [flocks]. Commentary:
Jacob, the forefather of the Israelites, is also called Israel, the name he received after struggling with an angel. Here Jacob and Israel are used in parallel phrases.
Upon learning that Jacob had obtained the paternal blessing by deceiving his father Isaac, Esau was furious and thought about killing his brother sometime after his father’s death. The mother, Rebekah, upon coming to know this, used the opportunity to voice her displeasure about Esau’s wives and gained the support of her husband in having Jacob go to her family in Aram or Syria and there obtain a wife for himself. With this objective, Jacob fled to Syria. (Genesis 27:41-28:2)
For seven years, Jacob served Rebekah’s brother Laban for Rachel, the woman whom he deeply loved. Laban, however, tricked Jacob into a marriage with the older sister Leah, and Jacob served Laban another seven years for Rachel. During this time, Jacob tended Laban’s flocks. The Genesis account relates how Jacob expressed himself to Laban about his service as a shepherd: “I have been with you for twenty years now. Your sheep and goats have not miscarried, nor have I eaten rams from your flocks. I did not bring you animals torn by wild beasts; I bore the loss myself. And you demanded payment from me for whatever was stolen by day or night. This was my situation: The heat consumed me in the daytime and the cold at night, and sleep fled from my eyes. It was like this for the twenty years I was in your household. I worked for you fourteen years for your two daughters and six years for your flocks, and you changed my wages ten times.” (Genesis 31:38-41, NIV)
Masoretic Text: And by a prophet YHWH brought Israel up from Egypt, and by a prophet he was guarded. Septuagint: And by a prophet the Lord brought Israel up from Egypt, and by a prophet he was guarded. Commentary:
YHWH used his prophet Moses to lead the liberated Israelites out of Egypt, the land of their enslavement. Moses also guarded Israel, zealously pursuing the cause of justice, admonishing the people to live up to their covenant obligations, and pleading to YHWH for them when they sinned grievously. (Exodus 18:15, 16, 25, 26; 32:11-13; Numbers 14:13-19; 16:21, 22; 21:7; Deuteronomy 28:1-68; 30:15-20)
Masoretic Text: Ephraim angered [the Lord] bitterly, and he will leave his blood on him, and his Lord will cause his reproach to return to him. Septuagint: Ephraim was infuriated and angered, and his blood will be poured out upon him, and the Lord will repay his reproach. Note:
The Septuagint reading depicts Ephraim in a state of fury and anger, but the Masoretic Text portrays him as provoking the Lord to anger.
Commentary:
Ephraim, or the people of the ten-tribe kingdom, adopted idolatrous practices and in other ways seriously violated their covenant obligations (particularly by oppressing and defrauding the poor). This provoked YHWH to anger. The Almighty expressed his bitter anger when he used the Assyrians as his instrument to inflict severe punishment.
Much Israelite blood was spilled during the Assyrian military campaign. Because of Ephraim’s guilt, however, this blood would be left on him, indicating that the full responsibility for the loss of life would rest on him. Additionally, Ephraim or the ten-tribe kingdom (during the course of its existence) had been guilty of spilling innocent blood, including that of children who were sacrificed and persons who were unjustly executed. Ephraim would not escape accountability for this record of bloodshed. According to the Septuagint, blood would be poured out on Ephraim, also indicative of the spilling of a great quantity of blood.
Wayward conduct brought reproach on YHWH, the Lord to whom Ephraim should have been obedient. Therefore, Ephraim’s Lord would cause this reproach to return to him. This would mean that there would be repayment for insulting YHWH. The overthrow of the ten-tribe kingdom and the subsequent exile of the survivors would have brought great reproach on the Israelites, with many taking up a taunt against them by reason of the humiliated state to which they had been reduced.
Masoretic Text: When Ephraim spoke, [there was] trembling. He lifted himself up in Israel and made himself guilty through Baal, and died. Septuagint: According to the word, Ephraim himself received ordinances in Israel and established them for Baal, and died. Note:
Commentary:
Among the tribes of Israel, Ephraim enjoyed an influential position. Whenever prominent Ephraimite representatives spoke, other Israelites “trembled,” evidently meaning that they respected what was said. The Ephraimite Joshua, Moses’ successor, proved himself to be an exemplary leader and a loyal supporter of pure worship. His word carried weight and would have prompted “trembling” among the Israelites.
The description about being lifted up may be understood to mean that Ephraim assumed a position of leadership or that the tribe occupied an exalted position among the other tribes. Translations convey both meanings—he “was exalted in Israel” (ESV, NAB, NIV, NRSV), and he “exalted himself in Israel” (NASB, Margolis)
Instead of following the example of Joshua, the Ephraimites failed to use their influence in resisting idolatry, choosing instead to participate in Baal worship. The first king, the Ephraimite Jeroboam, introduced calf worship. This deviation from pure worship made it easier for the Israelites to adopt other forms of idolatry, including the veneration of the fertility deity Baal. Through Baal, Ephraim died, suffering spiritual ruin and ceasing to be an influence for good. Upon abandoning YHWH and then participating in Baal worship, Ephraim came under divine judgment, a judgment that did terminate in the “death” of the ten-tribe kingdom. Furthermore, involvement with Baal worship defiled Ephraim, and he became like a corpse that made anyone touching it unclean.
Masoretic Text: And now they added to sinning and, from their silver, made a cast image for themselves, according to their understanding, idols—all of it the work of artisans. Of them they say, “Those sacrificing man, let them kiss calves.” Septuagint: And they added to sinning still and, from their silver, made a cast image for themselves, according to the likeness of idols—the works artisans finished for them. They say, “Sacrifice men, for the calves have ceased [to be].” Notes:
The words about “those sacrificing of man” (Masoretic Text) have been variously understood. The Septuagint rendering indicates that men were actually sacrificed, and this is also the meaning conveyed in other translations. “It is said of these people, “They offer human sacrifice and kiss the calf-idols.” (NIV) “Of them they say: ‘They that sacrifice men kiss calves.’” (Margolis)
Other translations, however, represent the offerings as being presented to the idols, with no reference to sacrificing men. “‘To these,’ they say, ‘offer sacrifice.’ Men kiss calves!” (NAB) “Yet for these they appoint men to sacrifice; they are wont to kiss calves!” (Tanakh) “You are told to sacrifice to these idols—yes, even to kiss them.” (CEV)
The Septuagint does not include any reference to kissing the calves. For most of the verse, however, the Septuagint reads much like the Masoretic Text.
Commentary:
As idolaters, the people of the ten-tribe kingdom continued to build up a record of sin. From silver, they fashioned a cast image of a deity. As an unreality, the deity did not have a form that an artisan could copy. The representation could only be made according to the people’s understanding or imagination. Therefore, in its entirety, an idol was nothing other than the work of an artisan.
Faithless Israelites did engage in the abominable practice of human sacrifice. (Ezekiel 23:37-39) While the sacrificing of men is definitely referred to in the Septuagint, this may not necessarily be the meaning conveyed in the Masoretic Text.
Kissing evidently was an idolatrous act. Either the representations of a calf were kissed or the worshiper kissed his hand in the direction of the image, throwing it a kiss.
Masoretic Text: Therefore, they will be like a morning cloud and like early disappearing dew, like chaff that wind drives from the threshing floor and like smoke from an opening. Septuagint: Therefore, they will be like a morning cloud and like disappearing early dew, like dust blown away from the threshing floor and like smoke from locusts. Note:
Commentary:
Idolatrous Israelites would not continue to reside in their land. The temporary nature of their then-existing situation is illustrated by examples of transitoriness. Once the sun rises, a mourning cloud or mist quickly disappears, as also does the dew. A gust of wind immediately blows away the light chaff, the refuse of the threshing operation. Smoke rising from any opening soon dissipates and vanishes. In the fulfillment, the Assyrian forces devastated the land, slaughtered many of the Israelites in battle, and exiled the survivors.
Masoretic Text: And I [am] YHWH your God from the land of Egypt and, besides me, you shall not know [another] and no savior except me. Septuagint: But I [am] the Lord your God, establishing heaven and creating the earth, whose hands created all the host of heaven, and I did not show you these [things] for you to go after them, and I brought you up from the land of Egypt, and no God except me shall you know, and, beside me, no one is saving. Note:
Commentary:
YHWH, upon liberating the Israelites from enslavement, manifested himself to be their God in Egypt. Although the people throughout the centuries thereafter repeatedly engaged in idolatry, none of the deities they adored had any existence as living entities. Therefore, besides YHWH, the Israelites had not come to know even one god. Lifeless deities could not save them from their enemies. YHWH alone had demonstrated himself to be the only savior.
Masoretic Text: I knew you in the wilderness, in an arid land. Septuagint: I shepherded you in the wilderness, in an uninhabitable land. Note:
Commentary:
After the Israelites left Egypt as a liberated people and thereafter wandered in the wilderness, YHWH knew or recognized them as his own and treated them accordingly. In the arid wilderness of the Sinai Peninsula, they could not have survived without his aid and guidance. According to the ancient description recorded in the book of Deuteronomy (8:15, NIV), the wilderness was “the vast and dreadful desert, that thirsty and waterless land, with its venomous snakes and scorpions.”
Masoretic Text: According to their pasturage, they will also be satiated. They were satiated, and their heart became exalted. Therefore, they have forgotten me. Septuagint: According to their grazings, they were also filled to fullness, and their hearts were exalted. Therefore, they forgot me. Commentary:
The expression “their pasturage” or “their grazings” is apparently to be understood of the abundance the Israelites came to enjoy, an abundance that completely satisfied them. Upon being satiated, they, in their hearts or inner selves, became exalted, attributing their prosperity to their own efforts. The result was that the Israelites failed to acknowledge YHWH as the One who had blessed them, forgetting him as if he did not exist and adopting disgusting idolatrous practices.
A parallel thought is found in the book of Deuteronomy (8:6-17, NIV):
“Observe the commands of [YHWH] your God, walking in his ways and revering him. For [YHWH] your God is bringing you into a good land—a land with streams and pools of water, with springs flowing in the valleys and hills; a land with wheat and barley, vines and fig trees, pomegranates, olive oil and honey; a land where bread will not be scarce and you will lack nothing; a land where the rocks are iron and you can dig copper out of the hills.
“When you have eaten and are satisfied, praise [YHWH] your God for the good land he has given you. Be careful that you do not forget [YHWH] your God, failing to observe his commands, his laws and his decrees that I am giving you this day. Otherwise, when you eat and are satisfied, when you build fine houses and settle down, and when your herds and flocks grow large and your silver and gold increase and all you have is multiplied, then your heart will become proud and you will forget [YHWH] your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery. He led you through the vast and dreadful desert, that thirsty and waterless land, with its venomous snakes and scorpions. He brought you water out of hard rock. He gave you manna to eat in the desert, something your fathers had never known, to humble and to test you so that in the end it might go well with you. You may say to yourself, ‘My power and the strength of my hands have produced this wealth for me.’”
Masoretic Text: And I will be to them like a lion; like a leopard I will lurk by the way. Septuagint: And I will be to them like a panther and like a leopard, according to the way of the Assyrians. Commentary:
The Israelites failed to live up to their covenant obligations. Therefore, because they forgot him, treating him as though they were not accountable to him for their actions, YHWH would cease to be their protector. Instead, he would become like a lion or a lurking leopard, ready to pounce upon them as if they were prey.
The Septuagint rendering likens YHWH’s changed course toward the Israelites to the “way of the Assyrians” who ruthlessly conquered other peoples as if they were prey. In the fulfillment, the Assyrians were the ones through whom YHWH acted toward the Israelites like a lion or a leopard.
Masoretic Text: I will meet them like a bereaved bear and tear the encasement of their heart, and I will devour them there like a lion; an animal of the field will rip them open. Septuagint: I will meet them like a bear suffering want and rip the enclosure of their heart. And cubs of a thicket will devour them there. Beasts of the field will tear them. Note:
Neither the Masoretic Text nor the Septuagint supply an object to indicate the kind of bereavement, lack, or loss. The reference in the Masoretic Text can be understood to mean being bereaved of cubs. Numerous translations have made the reference explicit—“like a bear robbed of her cubs” (NIV, NRSV), “like a bear robbed of its young” (NAB), and “like a bear robbed of her young” (Tanakh). The Septuagint rendering could point to a lack of food, suggesting a famished state.
Commentary:
YHWH purposed to execute severe judgment upon the disobedient Israelites. Having to face him in this capacity would be comparable to an encounter with a ferocious bear bereaved of her cubs. With the strong claws, the bear would be able to rip a man open, tearing out his heart. The ten-tribe kingdom would cease to exist, as if YHWH had devoured it like a lion. The surviving remnant would be like the mere remains of a kill. As if ripped open by a wild animal, the Israelites would resemble a mangled carcass.
Masoretic Text: He has destroyed you, Israel, but in me [is] your help. Septuagint: In your destruction, Israel, who will help [you]? Notes:
A measure of obscurity in the reference to destruction accounts for the various renderings found in translations. “You are undone, O Israel!” (Tanakh) “It is your destruction, O Israel.” (NASB) “You are about to be destroyed.” (NLT) “You are destroyed, O Israel.” (NIV)
The Masoretic Text could be understood to mean that YHWH was Israel’s only source of help. “You have no help but Me.” (HCSB) “But your help is from Me.” (NKJV)
Another possibility is that Israel had turned against YHWH, their sole helper. “He destroys you, O Israel, for you are against me, against your helper.” (ESV)
The Septuagint and the Syriac render the words as a question, and this has been followed by numerous translators. “Your destruction, O Israel! who is there to help you?” (NAB) “I will destroy you, O Israel; who can help you?” (NRSV)
Commentary:
During the period of Hosea’s prophesying, Assyrian invaders devastated the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, decimated the population, and exiled survivors. The complete overthrow of the kingdom lay ahead. In their time of distress, YHWH was the only one who could have helped them. Efforts to seek military support from Egypt would fail, and the deities the Israelites had revered would be shown up as valueless and nonexistent.
Masoretic Text: I will be your king then, and let him save you in all your cities, and your judges, of whom you said, “Give me a king and princes.” Septuagint: Where [is] this your king? And let him save you in all your cities. Let him judge you who said, “Give me a king and a ruler.” Note:
Translators generally have not followed the Masoretic Text reading “I will be,” but have adopted the rendering of the Septuagint, Syriac and Vulgate. “Where now is your king?” (Tanakh, NAB, NRSV, NIV, CEV)
Commentary:
Faced with the execution of divine judgment (which the Assyrian forces carried out), the Israelites would find their king to be powerless, unable to provide the needed forces to protect the cities. The judges, as part of the ruling members of the nation, would likewise be helpless.
In the days of Samuel, the Israelites requested a king to take the lead in fighting their battles. By extension, this request included lesser rulers (princes) or judges. (1 Samuel 8:4, 5, 11-20)
Masoretic Text: I did give you a king in my anger and did take him away in my fury. Septuagint: I gave you a king in my anger, and held in my fury Note:
In the Septuagint, the thought is not completed until the next verse. Even with the added words (assembly of injustice), however, the rendering is obscure.
Commentary:
In the days of Samuel, YHWH did give the Israelites Saul as king. Although giving the Israelites a monarch, YHWH was displeased with their faithless request. Divine displeasure or anger was manifest, as Samuel informed the people beforehand, by an unseasonable storm during the wheat harvest. (1 Samuel 12:16-19)
Saul failed to recognize the importance of obedience and, therefore, lost his life prematurely. Having incurred YHWH’s displeasure, Saul was taken away as king in YHWH’s wrath. (1 Chronicles 10:13, 14)
Masoretic Text: The iniquity of Ephraim is tied up; his sin is hidden. Septuagint: an assembly of injustice; Ephraim—his sin is being hidden. Note:
Commentary:
Ephraim’s iniquity (that of the people of the ten-tribe kingdom) was tied or wrapped up, as if the sin had been hidden inside the wrapping material. This suggests that the complete record of sin was securely stored, reserved for the day of retribution.
Masoretic Text: Pains of a woman in labor will come to him. He [is] an unwise son, for [at the right] time he will not present [himself] at the breach of sons. Septuagint: Pains as of one giving birth will come to him. This one, your son, is not wise, for by no means will he stand in the destruction of children. Notes:
According to other Septuagint manuscript evidence, the “your” is missing.
Two distinct Greek words for “not” express intensity—“by no means,” “definitely not,” or “absolutely not.”
The Septuagint reading is not as different as it might appear. The Hebrew word for “present” basically signifies “stand,” and “breach” or “break” can also mean “crushing,” “fracture,” or “collapse.”
Commentary:
Ephraim (the dominant tribe representing the people of the ten-tribe kingdom or the realm of the northern kingdom) would be facing divine judgment, comparable to a woman’s severe labor pains. His lack of wisdom is likened to that of an infant failing to present itself for vaginal delivery at the time for birth. This failure would lead to the baby’s death. Similarly, Ephraim or the ten-tribe kingdom would come to a calamitous end.
While the Masoretic Text is somewhat obscure, translators generally represent the situation as a failure to present himself “at the mouth of the womb” (NRSV), “where children break forth” (NAB), or at “the opening of the womb” (NIV). The Tanakh, however, interprets the passage differently. “And the babe is not wise—for this is no time to survive at the birthstool of babes.” This would mean that the situation would be so horrifying as to make death at birth preferable.
Masoretic Text: From the hand of Sheol I will ransom them; from death I will redeem them. I will be your stings, death. I will be your cutting off, Sheol. Compassion will be concealed from my eyes. Septuagint: From the hand of Hades I will rescue them and from death I will redeem them. Where [is] your vengeance, death? Where [is] your sting, Hades? Comfort is hidden from my eyes. Notes:
Instead of the Masoretic Text, translators have commonly followed the Septuagint and Syriac for the second part of this verse. A number, however, do follow the Masoretic Text. “O death, I will be your plagues! O Grave, I will be your destruction!” (NKJV) Tod, ich will dir ein Gift sein; Totenreich, ich will dir eine Pest sein. (Death, I will be poison to you; gravedom I will be a plague to you.) (Luther, 1984 revised) A footnote in the German translation Hoffnung für alle reads: Versteht man ein Wort des hebräischen Textes anders, kann der ganze Vers übersetzt werden: Ich werde sie vor dem Tod retten und sie aus der Gewalt des Totenreiches befreien. Ich werde die Pest für den Tod sein, ich werde die Seuche für das Totenreich sein. Ich werde kein Mitleid haben. (If one understands one word of the Hebrew text differently, the entire verse may be translated: I will rescue them from death and will liberate them from the power of gravedom. I will be the plague for death; I will be the pestilence for gravedom. I will have no compassion.)
The words of 1 Corinthians 15:55 resemble the extant text of the Septuagint. In the Corinthian passage, however, “death” replaces “Hades,” and “victory” (níke) replaces “vengeance,” “right,” “justice,” or “penalty” (díke). Also, the word order is different. Nevertheless, both the Hosea text and the apostle Paul’s use of the words point to a marvelous liberation.
Commentary:
These words constitute a comforting promise. In the case of the Israelites who would be moved to repentance, they could look forward to being liberated from exile, from a state comparable to death and confinement in Sheol or gravedom. (Compare Ezekiel 37:1-14.) This astounding release would prove to be a blow to death and to Sheol, as the sting of death would be nullified and Sheol would be rendered powerless with reference to the redeemed people.
As a comforting promise, the words about death and Sheol (when rendered as questions) imply that death would cease to have any sting and Sheol would no longer be able to maintain its restraint.
The statement about the concealment of compassion may indicate that, at the time for the execution of his adverse judgment, YHWH would hide his compassion or comfort. There is also the possibility that the Hebrew word nócham may be understood to mean “regret.” In that case, the meaning would be that YHWH would not regret having made the promise of deliverance. It would be certain of fulfillment.
Masoretic Text: Though the son [among] brothers may be fruitful, an east wind will come, a wind of YHWH, going up from the wilderness, and the fountain will be ashamed and his spring will be dry. It will plunder the treasure of all the desirable vessels. Septuagint: For this, between brothers he will separate. The Lord will bring a scorching wind from the wilderness upon him, and it will dry up his veins and devastate his springs. It will sear his land and all his desirable vessels. Notes:
In the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, the initial phrase is obscure. The Hebrew word ’ach means “brother,” but (for Hosea) a number of translators have chosen other meanings (“rushes”, “reeds,” and “weeds”), relating the whole description to the effect produced by the scorching wind. “Although he may flourish among rushes, the east wind shall come, a blast from the LORD, rising from the wilderness; and his fountain shall dry up, his spring shall be parched. It shall strip his treasury of every precious thing.” (NRSV) “For though he flourish among reeds, a blast, a wind of the LORD, shall come blowing up from the wilderness; his fountain shall be parched, his spring dried up. That [wind] shall plunder treasures, every lovely object.” (Tanakh) “Even though Israel flourishes like weeds, I will send a hot east wind from the desert, and it will dry up their springs and wells. It will take away everything of value.” (GNT, Second Edition)
Translations that preserve the meaning “brothers” have added words to convey something meaningful. “Though he is fruitful among his brothers, an east wind will come, the breath of Yahweh coming up from the wilderness; and his spring will become dry, and his fountain will be dried up. He will plunder the storehouse of treasure.” (NJB) “Though he be fruitful among his fellows, an east wind shall come, a wind from the LORD, rising from the desert, that shall dry up his spring, and leave his fountain dry. It shall loot his land of every precious thing.” (NAB) “Ephraim was the most fruitful of all his brothers, but the east wind—a blast from the LORD—will arise in the desert. It will blow hard against the people of Ephraim, drying up their land. All their flowing springs and wells will disappear. Every precious thing they have will be plundered and carried away.” (NLT) The New International Version links the opening phrase with the concluding thought of the previous verse. “I will have no compassion, even though he thrives among his brothers.”
Perhaps the introductory phrase in the Septuagint could be understood to mean that YHWH, in expressing his judgment, would distinguish or separate between brothers.
In this context, the Septuagint rendering “veins” or “arteries” (phléps) may be understood to refer to groundwater.
Commentary:
The apparent reference is to Ephraim (the name derived from a Hebrew root meaning “fruitful”). Although Ephraim was a “son among brothers” and became “fruitful,” prospered or flourished, this condition would come to an end. YHWH purposed to bring against him a scorching east wind originating in the arid wilderness or desert. Such a wind would cause fountains to be “ashamed,” ceasing to supply water because of being dried up. Springs would fail. The powerful wind would sweep away valuables stored in precious vessels.
In the fulfillment, the Assyrian forces, like a destructive storm, swept through the land, devastating the territory of the ten-tribe kingdom, killing many Israelites, plundering all the valuable possessions, and exiling the survivors.
Masoretic Text: Samaria will be accounted guilty, for she rebelled against her God. By the sword they will fall. Their children will be dashed to pieces, and [their] pregnant women will be ripped open. Septuagint: Samaria will be removed, for she has resisted her God. By the sword they will fall, and their sucklings will be dashed to the ground, and their pregnant women will be ripped open. Commentary:
Samaria, as the capital of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel, can include all the people of the realm or just the inhabitants of the city. By engaging in idolatry and failing to live up to their covenant obligations, the people revealed themselves as rebels against YHWH. On account of their record of serious guilt, they would experience the horrors of war—slaughter with the sword and shocking atrocities against children and pregnant women.
Masoretic Text: Return, Israel, to YHWH your God, for you have stumbled in your iniquity. Septuagint: Return, Israel, to the Lord your God, for you have stumbled in your injustices. Commentary:
Instead of walking uprightly, the Israelites had stumbled about in a wayward course. With few exceptions, they had pursued idolatry, and many among them had oppressed and defrauded the poor. A return to YHWH would require repentance and abandonment of their former lawless ways.
Masoretic Text: Take words with you and return to YHWH. Say to him, “All iniquity take away, and accept [what is] good, and we will pay the bulls of our lips.” Septuagint: Take words with you and return to the Lord your God. Say to him (that you may not receive injustice but receive good things), “And we will repay the fruit of our lips.” Notes:
The Septuagint reading about not receiving injustice may mean not being punished for injustice but being forgiven and thereupon receiving good things from YHWH.
A number of translations have chosen to follow the Septuagint and Syriac or have used interpretive renderings for the expression “bulls of our lips”—“fruit of our lips” (NIV, NRSV), “bullocks from our stalls” (NAB), and “sacrifices of praise instead of bulls” (CEV).
Commentary:
The Israelites are admonished to approach YHWH with words of repentance, returning to him for the purpose of having his approval. They are encouraged to appeal to have their iniquity taken away or forgiven and to have their humble request accepted. The promise to offer the bulls of their lips apparently means offering up expressions of praise and thanksgiving or, according to the Septuagint rendering, the fruit of their lips.
Masoretic Text: Assyria will not save us. On horses, we will not ride nor will we again say, “our god,” to the work of our hands. In you, the fatherless will find mercy. Septuagint: Assyria will by no means save us. We will not mount on horses. Let us not any longer say, “our gods,” to the works of our hands. The one in you will pity the orphan. Notes:
In the Masoretic Text, a relative pronoun follows the word for “hands.” This pronoun ’ashér, in its basic sense, means “which” and functions as a connecting link. If it is included in the translation, it could be rendered as “whom” (you in whom the orphan will find mercy). This, however, requires adding words to make a complete sentence. (You [are the one] in whom the orphan will find mercy.)
The Septuagint rendering “the one in you” could mean: (1) The person “in” (at one with) YHWH would be merciful to the orphan. (2) He (YHWH) who is among you will pity the orphan.
The two distinct words for “not” in the Septuagint serve to intensify the negative and signify “by no means,” “definitely not,” or “absolutely not.” Another intensification of this kind is used regarding ceasing to call “gods” the works of human hands.
Commentary:
While Hosea served as a prophet, the ten-tribe kingdom at times allied itself with Assyria. Israelite kings Menahem and Hoshea endeavored to secure their position with the aid of Assyria. (See comments on 5:13.) The time would come, however, when the Israelites would realize that looking to Assyria or any other foreign power would not effect their deliverance. Upon repenting for having abandoned YHWH as the only dependable source of protection, guidance, and blessing, they would cease to rely on horses as a vital part of a military force and would no longer venerate deities an artisan had fashioned. Instead, they would look to YHWH, the One who did not ignore the lowliest persons in their midst. Even the orphan could expect to be a recipient of YHWH’s compassionate care.
Masoretic Text: I will heal their apostasy. I will love them freely, for my anger will turn away from him. Septuagint: I will heal their dwellings. I will love them openly, for my anger has turned away from them. Note:
Commentary:
When the Israelites forsook YHWH and turned to the veneration of fertility gods and other deities, they plummeted into a sickly state. Upon their repenting, YHWH would heal the diseased state of their apostasy or defection. The Israelites would come to experience his spontaneous love, for his anger or intense displeasure would be turned away from them.
Masoretic Text: I will be like dew to Israel. He will blossom like a lily and thrust his roots like Lebanon. Septuagint: I will be like dew to Israel. He will blossom like a lily and thrust his roots like Lebanon. Commentary:
To Israel in its repentant state, YHWH would become like refreshing dew that revives vegetation. As a result, Israel would then flourish, “sprouting” or “blossoming” like a beautiful flower of the lily family and sending out an extensive root system like the magnificent cedars that were the fame of Lebanon.
Masoretic Text: His shoots will go forth, and his splendor will be like the olive, and his aroma like Lebanon. Septuagint: His branches will go forth, and he will be like a fruitful olive tree, and his aroma like Lebanon. Commentary:
In the restored state, Israel would flourish like a tree with new shoots or branches. The splendor would be comparable to an olive tree bearing abundant fruit. Disobedience to God’s commands brought consequences that made Israel a stench among the nations. This stench would give way to the pleasant aroma of cedars in Lebanon.
Masoretic Text: They will return to dwell in his shadow. They will revive grain, and they will sprout like the vine; his remembrance [will be] like the wine of Lebanon. Septuagint: They will return and dwell under his shelter. They will live and be drenched with grain, and his remembrance will flourish like a vine, like wine of Lebanon. Notes:
Translators vary in their renderings, with many choosing to omit the reference to the return and using “again” instead. “Men will dwell again in his shade.” (NIV) “They shall again live beneath my shadow.” (NRSV) “Again they shall dwell in his shade.” (NAB) “You will rest in my shade.” (CEV) “They who sit in his shade shall be revived.” (Tanakh)
Among the renderings that preserve the aspect about returning are the following: “They shall return and sit under his shadow.” (Darby) “They shall return and dwell beneath my shadow.” (ESV) Es kehren zurück, die in seinem Schatten wohnen. (Those who dwell in his shadow will return.) (German, revised Elberfelder)
The expression regarding reviving grain is probably to be understood as meaning to cultivate grain.
Commentary:
In a hot climate, a shadow or shade is welcome, providing a measure of relief from the intense heat. Therefore, for the Israelites to return to YHWH and be restored to their land would mean that they would once again come under his protective care. They would cultivate grain and enjoy an abundance, flourishing like a healthy grapevine. In the restored state, Israel’s “remembrance” or fame would be comparable to the wine of Lebanon. This thought is explicitly expressed in a number of translations. “They will be as famous as the wine of Lebanon.” (GNT, Second Edition) “You will blossom like a vineyard and be famous as the wine from Lebanon.” (CEV) [S]ie...gedeihen wie die Reben, deren Wein so berühmt ist wie der Wein vom Libanon. (They...flourish like the grape clusters, the wine of which is as famous as the wine from Lebanon.) (German, Einheitsübersetzung)
There is also a possibility that “his remembrance” signifies the renown of YHWH, the One under whose shadow the Israelites would find protection. This may be the thought expressed in the rendering, “His renown will be like the wine of Lebanon.” (NAB) This rendering also has the support of the Septuagint.
A number of translations link the fame to the vine. Ja, mein Volk wird aufblühen wie die berühmten Weinstöcke an den Hängen des Libanon. (Yes, my people will bloom like the famous grapevines on the slopes of Lebanon.) (German, Hoffnung für alle) [S]ie werden...blühen wie ein Weintstock, dessen Ruf wie der Wein vom Libanon ist. (They will...blossom like a grapevine, the reputation of which is like the wine from Lebanon.) (German, revised Elberfelder)
Masoretic Text: Ephraim—what [is there] still [between] me [and] idols? I, I have answered and will look after him. I [am] like a luxuriant juniper; from me, your fruit is found. Septuagint: To Ephraim, what [is there] still [between] him and idols? I, I humbled him, and I, I will strengthen him. I [am] like an overshadowing juniper; from me, your fruit has been found. Note:
Commentary:
Ephraim, the dominant tribe, here represents the people of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. The question about idols may either relate to Ephraim’s giving up idols or YHWH’s rejection of idols and, accordingly, his admonition for Ephraim to abandon idolatry. Both meanings can be found in translations. “Ephraim! What more has he to do with idols?” (NAB) “Ephraim [shall say]: ‘What more have I to do with idols?’” (Tanakh) “O Ephraim, what have I to do with idols?” (NRSV) “Israel, give up your idols!” (CEV)
YHWH’s answering or responding to the Israelites would be dependent on their shunning idolatry and being exclusively devoted to him. This would assure them of his watching over them, providing needed aid and protection.
Through Hosea, the Almighty likened himself to a luxuriant juniper. The Hebrew term berósh may designate the Juniperus excelsa, an impressive evergreen that may attain a height in excess of 60 feet. Such a tree would provide protective shade.
For the Israelites, YHWH alone would be the source of their fruit—everything essential for their sustenance. Another possible meaning is that YHWH enabled Ephraim to be fruitful (NAB, NIV).
Masoretic Text: Who [is] wise? [Then] let him understand. Discerning? [Then] let him know them. For straight [are] the ways of YHWH, and the upright ones will walk in them, and the transgressors will stumble in them. Septuagint: Who [is] wise and will understand these things? Or sensible and will recognize these things? For straight [are] the ways of the Lord, and the upright ones will walk in them, but the impious will stumble in them. Note:
Commentary:
Wise persons understand YHWH’s straight, just or upright ways. Based on what he has revealed regarding his will and purpose, they comprehend what is required of them. “Discerning” or “sensible” parallels “wise.” Those who are discerning or sensible “know” or “recognize” YHWH’s ways. As wise and discerning persons, they choose to walk in the way outlined for them, conducting themselves in harmony with the direction provided. Transgressors, on the other hand, resist YHWH’s guidance and so stumble in his ways, their conduct being contrary to his right paths.