Micah

Micah (whose name means “Who is like YHWH?”) began his prophetic activity during the reign of Jotham and, therefore, later than his contemporaries, the prophets Isaiah and Hosea (Isaiah 1:1; Hosea 1:1; Micah 1:1) Another contemporary prophet was Oded. (2 Chronicles 28:9-11)

Micah foretold that Samaria would be reduced to ruins. (Micah 1:6) Unlike the book of Isaiah that mentions the destruction of Samaria and the devastation of much of the kingdom of Judah during the reign of King Hezekiah (Isaiah 10:9-11; 36:1), the book of Micah includes no reference to these major developments. This suggests that Micah’s service as a prophet did not extend to the time the Assyrians overran the kingdom of Israel and captured Samaria during the reign of Hoshea and while Hezekiah was ruling in Jerusalem.

Whereas Isaiah and his family either lived near or in Jerusalem (Isaiah 7:3; 37:1, 2), Micah is identified as being from Moresheth and may well have continued to reside there throughout his life. The town of Moresheth has been linked to Tell- el-Judeideh (Tel Goded), some 22 miles (c. 35 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem. Micah’s being from Moresheth near the border of Philistine territory is also evident from his mentioning other towns that were located in the general area. (Micah 1:10-13) Although Micah was not in the same close proximity to the royal palace in Jerusalem as was Isaiah, his message did reach the Judean king Hezekiah who responded favorably. Years later during the reign of King Jehoiakim, when false prophets and priests wanted to have Jeremiah killed for declaring a similar message, certain elders came to his defense and called attention to the fact that Hezekiah had heeded the words of Micah who spoke concerning the calamity that would befall Jerusalem. (Jeremiah 26:10-19)

Widespread lawlessness among the Israelites in the kingdom of Israel and in the kingdom of Judah must have greatly distressed Micah. Especially the lowly ones of the people, including orphans and widows, were oppressed and treated unjustly. (Micah 2:1, 2, 8, 9) The leaders who should have been upholding justice accepted bribes and declared the guiltless ones guilty, making themselves responsible for shedding innocent blood. (Micah 3:9-11) To attain their base objectives, the leaders treated the people like animals designated for slaughter. (Micah 3:1, 2) Lying prophets lulled the morally corrupt Israelites into a false sense of security, contributing to their disregarding the word of YHWH and refusing to abandon their wayward course. (Micah 2:6, 11; 3:5) The moral breakdown affected family relationships, making it impossible for individuals to trust even their closest family members. A man’s enemies proved to be persons of his own household. (Micah 7:1-6)

The Israelites repeatedly violated YHWH’s commands. Therefore, his word or message through Micah focused on the judgment to come upon Samaria and Jerusalem and the respective kingdoms of which these two cities were the capitals. (Micah 1:5, 6; 3:9-12) Additionally, the message contained comfort for the repentant ones among the people. It pointed forward to the coming of the Messiah, the exalted place that divinely approved worship would come to have, and the blessings that people from all nations would come to enjoy upon turning to YHWH and wanting to be instructed in his ways. (Micah 4:1-4; 5:2)

Micah 1:1-16

In the eighth century BCE, the “word of YHWH” came to Micah of Moresheth, a town near the border of Philistine territory. (See the introduction for additional comments.) His service as a prophet began during the reign of Judean king Jotham and continued in the “days” or the time of kings Ahaz and Hezekiah. (1:1; see the Notes section.)

Whereas Jotham adhered to God’s law, his subjects in general persisted in idolatrous practices. (2 Kings 15:35; 2 Chronicles 27:2, 6) Ahaz, his son and successor, proved to be disloyal to YHWH. As an idolater, he participated in the abhorrent act of child sacrifice. (2 Kings 16:1-4; 2 Chronicles 28:1-4) Especially during his reign, oppression, corruption, and bloodshed must have been widespread. The moral breakdown that is revealed in the expressions of Micah doubtless reflect the conditions during the rule of Ahaz, and likely also existed after his son Hezekiah began to reign. Hezekiah did not follow the example of his father but chose to be devoted to YHWH and heeded the words of Micah and his contemporary Isaiah. (2 Chronicles 29:2) In view of the corruption and idolatry that had existed during the reign of Ahaz, the noble course of Hezekiah and his reforms would not have led to major changes among those who had become accustomed to a lawless way of life. As far as the kingdom of Israel was concerned, both the kings and their subjects in general disregarded God’s commands and paid no attention to his prophets who called upon them to repent. (2 Kings 17:7-18) Therefore, the word of YHWH through Micah continued to be one that pointed to punitive judgment for Samaria and Jerusalem, the respective capitals of the kingdom of Israel and of the kingdom of Judah. As the capital cities, Samaria and Jerusalem represent all the inhabitants of both kingdoms. (1:1)

The message that Micah proclaimed did not originate with him. This message is designated as the word “which he saw concerning Samaria and Jerusalem,” indicating that it came to him through divine revelation. The reference to seeing may indicate that the message was impressed on his mind while he was dreaming or while he was in a trance. (1:1)

The command for all the peoples to hear may apply to the people of all the nations. If, however, the application is limited by the immediate context, the people of the kingdom of Israel and those of the kingdom of Judah would be the ones called upon to listen. The directive for the earth to give attention may be understood as a command for the people of all the nations inhabiting the earth to do so. In this case, however, the noun “earth” may designate the land in which the Israelites resided and could, therefore, apply to all the Israelites dwelling in the land. No one is excepted. This is indicated by the words “earth and its fullness” or, according to the Septuagint, “all the ones in it.” (1:2; see the Notes section.)

As a witness against the people, YHWH would present his testimony regarding their wrongdoing that had not escaped his attention. In the capacity of a witness, he would also be the one to execute the deserved punitive judgment. The “temple of his holiness” or “his holy temple [holy house (LXX)]” refers to his holy dwelling place in heaven or the exalted spirit realm. (1:2)

The words “for look” serve to draw the attention of those being addressed to what YHWH would be doing. He would “go forth from his place” or his heavenly residence and would “come down” and then “tread upon the high places of the earth” or of the land. This indicated that he would be turning his attention to the inhabitants of the land for the purpose of taking action against them. It would be comparable to his having made a descent from heaven so as to be on the scene to carry out his purpose. The reference to treading on the “high places” may point to his exercising full control over all the land and its inhabitants, for high places are the strategic locations for observing everything that takes place below and being in the best position to respond to the developments there. Moreover, since high places often were the sites for idolatrous practices, YHWH’s treading on them could indicate that he would be turning his attention to these high places and would bring about their destruction. (1:3; compare Jeremiah 3:6; Hosea 4:13. See the Notes section.)

YHWH’s descent is represented as having a fear-inspiring effect on the physical features of the land. Mountains are depicted as “melting” under him or, according to the Septuagint, as being “shaken” (by an earthquake). The melting could allude to mudslides that occur after heavy downpours and which make it appear as if the mountain slopes are melting. (1:4)

As for the valleys below, “they will be split.” Torrents rushing down from the hills and mountains would fill and overflow dry stream beds and thus split the land apart. (1:4)

The phrase about wax (doubtless meaning beeswax) could be linked to the mountains, which would melt “like wax from before [literally, ‘from (the) face of’] the fire.” A number of translations make this significance explicit by transposing the phrase regarding wax. “Then the mountains will melt under him like wax in a fire.” (GNT, Second Edition) “The mountains will melt under him like wax near a fire.” (NIRV) “At his touch mountains dissolve like wax before fire.” (REB) The Septuagint rendering, however, refers to the melting of the valleys, which would melt “like wax from the face of fire and like water being carried down in a descent.” This could be understood to mean that torrents rushing down into the valleys would erode land as if it were melting and would wash it away as when water comes down from a descent or slope. (1:4)

In case the Hebrew text about the water applies to the valleys, the effect on the land below the mountains and hills would be like that produced by water being poured down on a slope. Translators who have transposed the phrase about wax have variously rendered the concluding thought. “Valleys are torn open as when torrents pour down a hillside.” (REB) “The valleys will be broken apart by water rushing down a slope.” (NIRV) “They [the melting mountains] will pour down into the valleys like water pouring down a hill.” (GNT, Second Edition) (1:4)

The reason for YHWH’s coming down or turning his attention to the people so as to execute his judgment against them is identified as being the “transgression [impiety (LXX)] of Jacob” and the “sins [sin (LXX and 8HevXIIgr)] of the house of Israel.” “Jacob” and “house of Israel” are parallel designations that apply to the Israelites, the descendants of Jacob whose name was changed to Israel. (Genesis 32:28) The questions that follow indicate that the transgression or the sins relate to idolatry and, therefore, to a serious failure to be fully devoted to YHWH and to heed his commands. “What [is the] transgression [impiety (LXX)] of Jacob? [Is it] not Samaria? And what [of] the high places [sin (LXX)] of Judah? [Is it] not Jerusalem?” (1:5)

During the reign of Omri, Samaria became the capital of the kingdom of Israel, and the name of the city often is used to designate the entire realm. (1 Kings 16:23, 24) Jeroboam, the first monarch of the kingdom of Israel established calf worship in the northern city of Dan and the southern city of Bethel. (1 Kings 12:26-33) This act of disloyalty to YHWH plunged the entire kingdom into an idolatrous course that continued uninterrupted to the very end, and this is the sin that came to be associated with Samaria. (1:5)

To please his many foreign wives, King Solomon established high places for the veneration of numerous deities. (1 Kings 11:1-8) During the reigns of Solomon’s successors, high places came to exist throughout the realm. As the capital that represented the entire kingdom of Judah, Jerusalem could also be regarded as linked to all of these high places, and their existence and the rites in which the people engaged constituted a serious revolt against YHWH and his commands. (1:5)

On account of the sin of Samaria, YHWH is represented as declaring that he would reduce the city to a “ruin of the field” or just a heap of rubble on a parcel of land. According to the Septuagint, he would make Samaria into a watchman’s hut in a field, probably meaning that the city would come to resemble a hut in an unoccupied and neglected condition. As a desolated site, Samaria would come to be suitable for planting a vineyard. YHWH is represented as saying that he would hurl down the stones of Samaria into the valley (a chasm [LXX]) and lay the foundations of the city bare. With the stones of the destroyed buildings being toppled from the elevated site into the valley below, the foundations would be exposed. (1:6; see the Notes section.)

During the reign of Israelite king Hoshea, the Assyrian monarch Shalmanser V with his forces came against Samaria, and the Assyrians captured the city after a three-year siege. (2 Kings 18:9, 10) A Babylonian chronicle indicates that Shalmaneser V “ravaged” the city. The annals of his successor, Sargon II, report that, in the first year of his reign, he “besieged and conquered Samaria” and took 27,280 of the people into exile. The Assyrian conquest fulfilled the words of Micah’s prophecy. Because YHWH permitted the Assyrians to capture Samaria, bringing an end to the kingdom of Israel, the conquest of the city is attributed to him. (1:6)

The prophetic word indicated that the conquerors of Samaria would “beat” or “cut” (LXX) her idols to pieces and that they would consign all her “hire” to the flames. Samaria’s hire could include everything that had been accumulated through corrupt practices and extensive trade. Involvement with other nations in trade led to adopting their God-dishonoring ways, including abominable idolatrous practices. The gain amassed through the pursuit of a course of unfaithfulness to YHWH constituted the hire of a prostitute, for the Israelites were in a covenant relationship with him and thus bound to him as a wife is to her husband. (1:7)

YHWH decreed that he would make the idols of Samaria a waste. From the wages of prostituting herself through a course of unfaithfulness to YHWH, Samaria had gathered riches, and to the wages of a prostitute the things accumulated would return. The victors would credit the conquest of Samaria to their deities and make offerings from the spoils to their gods and goddesses. As idolatry is divinely decreed to be prostitution, the wages or gain from harlotry would end up returning to the hire of harlotry. The Septuagint rendering could be understood to mean that Samaria gathered the idols from the wages of prostitution and brought them together from these wages. This suggests that the Israelites used a significant portion of the profit derived through their corrupt practices to increase the number of their idols. (1:7; see the Notes section.)

In view of the calamity to befall Samaria, Micah (according to the Hebrew text), in his own person, appears to represent the distressing effect this would have on the people. He would wail and howl, giving expression to loud and bitter lamentation. Like a mourner, he would go about without his sandals and stripped of his usual clothing. Although not stated in the text, likely he would cover the bare skin of his loins with sackcloth (a coarse cloth made from goat’s hair). In the Septuagint, Samaria is represented as a woman who would beat her breasts in lamentation, wailing and going about barefoot and naked. (1:8)

The Hebrew word tan is commonly understood to mean “jackal,” but in the Septuagint this designation is rendered as “dragon” (drákon). There is a measure of uncertainty about the meaning of the Hebrew noun ya‘anáh, which is preceded by the word for “daughters.” Literally, the expression could be rendered “daughters of greed,” and it is commonly regarded as applying to “ostriches.” The Septuagint rendering does not provide any insight, as the reference therein is to “daughters of sirens” (mythological creatures). (1:8)

According to the Hebrew text, Micah would wail like jackals. These canines howl, bark, and yelp. Micah would also make a sound of a person in mourning, a sound resembling that of ostriches. They make a deep mournful warning sound that can be heard a long distance away. The Septuagint refers to Samaria as lamenting like dragons and mourning like the daughters of sirens. (1:8)

The “blows” (“blow” [LXX]) to be inflicted on Samaria would be so severe as to prevent any recovery. After their conquest of Samaria, the Assyrians settled peoples of other nations in the region and thus the place ceased to be an Israelite city. The “blows” or “blow” striking Samaria would also affect the kingdom of Judah. As if the blow had already been inflicted, Micah referred to it as reaching “to the gate of my people, to Jerusalem.” During the reign of King Hezekiah, Assyrian monarch Sennacherib and his forces launched a punitive campaign against the kingdom of Judah, conquering the fortified cities and threatening to besiege Jerusalem. According to the biblical account, divine intervention saved the city. (1:9; see 2 Kings 18:13-25; 19:32-36.)

The Hebrew text about not making a declaration in Gath could be understood to mean that no report about the humiliating defeat should be made in this Philistine city, as the people therein would rejoice over the calamity that had befallen the people whom they regarded as their enemies. (1:10; compare 2 Samuel 1:20.) Before Micah began serving as a prophet, Judean king Uzziah conquered Gath and other Philistine cities. (2 Chronicles 26:6-8) During the reign of Ahaz, the grandson of Uzziah, the Philistines engaged in raids against the kingdom of Judah, captured a number of cities, and established themselves in the conquered region. (2 Chronicles 28:18, 19) King Hezekiah, the son of Ahaz, waged a successful campaign against the Philistines. (2 Kings 18:8) According to his annals, Assyrian king Sennacherib, after his campaign against the kingdom of Judah while Hezekiah reigned, gave conquered Judean towns to Philistine kings (Mitini the king of Ashdod, Padi the king of Ekron, and Sillibel the king of Gaza). So there would have been rejoicing about the calamity that befell the kingdom of Judah, especially since (as reported in Sennacherib’s annals) Hezekiah had earlier imprisoned Padi the king of Ekron. (1:10)

In the Septuagint, Geth (Gath) is mentioned in a different setting. The people of Gath were not to magnify themselves, which could mean that they were not to consider themselves great because their humiliated state had ended. (1:10)

There appears to be a wordplay on the name “Gath” with the Hebrew second person plural verb for “declare” or “tell” (taggidu). In connection with the names of certain towns that follow, the play on these names cannot be duplicated in translation. (1:10)

Aphrah has not been identified with any specific site. Based on the context, the town may have been in the Shephelah, the region west of Israel’s central mountain range, or in the plain bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. There is a play on the name Aphrah with the Hebrew word for “dust” (‘aphár). For “the house of Aphrah” or “Beth-leaphrah” to roll in the dust would mean that it would be brought low through conquest. (1:10)

The rendering of the Septuagint could literally be translated, “The ones in Akim, do not rebuild from a house according to laughter. Besprinkle earth according to your laughter.” This obscure reading could mean that an attempt to rebuild houses by the people of Akim would make them objects of derision, as such rebuilding would come to nothing. For this reason they should not rebuild. They should besprinkle earth or dirt on that which would make them an object of laughter, concealing it. (1:10)

There is uncertainty about the location of Shaphir. One suggested site is situated west of Hebron. In connection with Shaphir and also Zaanan, the participial form of the verb for “dwell” or “inhabit” (yasháv) is singular and feminine gender, but it may be understood to apply to those residing in the respective towns. The inhabitants of Shaphir are told to “pass over” in “nakedness,” in “shame” (bósheth). This suggests that the town of Shaphir would be conquered and the surviving inhabitants would be led away as humiliated captives stripped of their clothing. There appears to be a play on the name “Shaphir” (“elegant” or “beautiful”) with bósheth (“shame”). (1:11)

The play on the name “Shaphir” cannot be preserved in translation, and the Septuagint rendering appears to reflect the meaning of the name “Shaphir”
(kalós, meaning “well” or “beautifully”). There is, however, no reference to “nakedness” and “shame.” The Septuagint reads, “The one inhabiting her cities well did not go out.” Based on the words that follow, this inhabitress is Sennaan (Zaanan). (1:11)

The reference to the ones inhabiting Zaanan as not going out may be variously understood. On account of the enemy invasion, the residents would be afraid to leave the protective walls. Another possibility is that they would not be able to come out in order to make a successful escape from the besieged town. Their going out could also apply to leaving the town to come to the aid of beleaguered Shaphir or Beth-ezel. Translators are often more specific in their renderings than is the Hebrew text. “The people of Zaanan dare not come outside their walls.” (NLT) “Those who live in Zaanan do not dare to come out of their city.” (GNT, Second Edition) “The inhabitant of Zaanan does not escape.” (NASB) “The town of Bethezel mourns because no one from Zaanan went out to help.” (CEV) “You who live in the town of Shaphir, leave in shame and without your clothes. Those who live in Zaanan won’t come out to help you.” (NIRV) The Hebrew text contains a play on the name Zaanan (tsa’anan) with the verb for “go out” (yatsá’). (1:11)

In the Septuagint, the inhabitress of Sennaan (Zaanan) is represented as a woman beating her breasts in lamentation for the “house next to her.” The words “house next to her” reflect the meaning of the name “Beth-ezel” (“house nearby [beside]”). (1:11)

The concluding phrase of the Hebrew text in this verse could be literally rendered, “Wailing of Beth-ezel will take from you his standing ground.” This wailing suggests that Beth-ezel would be subjected to conquest and so could provide no place of refuge or give any support to defeated ones in the region. Translators vary in their interpretive renderings. “Beth-ezel is a place of lamentation; she can lend you support no longer.” (REB) “When you hear the people of Bethezel mourn, you will know that there is no refuge there.” (GNT, Second Edition) “The people in Beth Ezel will sob. They won’t be able to help keep you safe.” (NIRV) “Beth-ezel is torn from its foundations, from its strong supports.” (NJB) “The town of Bethezel mourns because no one from Zaanan went out to help.” (CEV) “The lamentation of Beth-ezel: ‘He will take from you its support.’” (NASB) “The people of Beth-ezel mourn, for their house has no support.” (NLT) The Septuagint rendering could mean that Zanaan would receive a painful blow from the invader (“she will receive a blow of pain from you”). (1:11)

As in the previous verse, the participial form of the verb for “dwell” or “inhabit” (yasháv) is singular and feminine gender. It may here refer to those dwelling in Maroth (a town that has not been positively identified with a particular site). The residents of Maroth would anxiously wait for “good,” but they would wait in vain, for evil” or calamity “from YHWH” would reach the “gate of Jerusalem.” With the city of Jerusalem being threatened, the people of Maroth could not expect a change for the better or any relief from the distressing situation they faced. The calamity is spoken of as coming down from YHWH, as he permitted it to befall his people. In the fulfillment, the Assyrians were intent on seizing Jerusalem, but YHWH’s intervention through his angel saved the city. (1:12; 2 Kings 18:17, 28-35; 19:32-35)

In Hebrew, there appears to be a play on the name “Maroth,” which designation is linked to a root meaning “bitter” (“bitterness” is waiting anxiously for “good”). According to the Septuagint, the question may be, “Who began [to do] good things for the inhabitress of pains?” The implied answer is that there would be no one bringing relief to those who experienced pains or distressing circumstances as if they were surrounded by them. This would be on account of the calamities descending “from the Lord upon the gates of Jerusalem.” (1:12)

As in verses 11 and 12, the singular Hebrew participial form of the verb yasháv in the feminine gender may be understood as applying to those inhabiting the city. The directive is for the residents of Lachish (a major fortified city in the kingdom of Judah) to harness the chariot to a team of horses. This could mean that the people were to get ready for battle or to prepare for flight from the invading military force. (For pictures of and comments about the site of ancient Lachish, see Lachish and for pictures of the Assyrian reliefs about the siege of Lachish, see reliefs.) (1:13)

Neither the context nor any other passages in the Scriptures make it possible to determine how Lachish proved to be the “beginning of sin to the daughter of Zion” or the city of Jerusalem. Possibly the reference is to a kind of idolatrous worship that had its start in Lachish and afterward came to be practiced in Jerusalem. Another possibility is that the sin related to a failure to trust in YHWH as the one who could protect his people, relying instead on chariots and horses for security. Horses and chariots may first have come to Lachish from Egypt. (Compare Deuteronomy 20:1-4; 1 Kings 10:26, 28, 29; Psalm 20:7.) The “transgressions [‘impious deeds’ or ‘godless acts’ (LXX)] of Israel” that were found in Lachish may likewise involve idolatry or reliance on chariots and horses for security instead of on YHWH. (1:13)

According to verse 12, the calamity would reach the “gate of Jerusalem,” the capital of the kingdom of Judah. So it may be that the kingdom of Judah is here said to give “parting gifts to Moresheth-gath.” The compound name “Moresheth-gath” may indicate that control over Moresheth (the hometown of the prophet Micah) would be transferred from the kingdom of Judah to the Philistines or, more specifically, to the Philistine city of Gath. Moresheth-gath may be represented as a daughter with “parting gifts” at the time she is taken away from her family to serve as a slave. The Assyrian forces conquered the region that included Moresheth, and the Assyrians may have handed the control of the town over to the Philistines. Lending a measure of support to this deduction is the fact that Sennacherib, according to his annals, gave captured Judean towns to Philistine rulers. In Hebrew, there appears to be a play on the name “Moresheth,” meaning “possession.” (“Possession” with her parting gifts becomes the “possession of Gath.”) (1:14)

The Septuagint text bears little resemblance to the extant Hebrew text. It could be understood to say that the kingdom of Judah would send ambassadors to the “inheritance” or territory of “Geth” (Gath), to “empty houses, for nothingness it became to the kings of Israel.” This obscure rendering could mean that the Israelites and their rulers received no benefit from having dispatched representatives to Gath. The result proved to be as if they had sent envoys off to uninhabited houses. (1:14)

Achzib was a town of Judah situated in the Shephelah, as were Lachish and Moresheth. (Joshua 15:44) This town is spoken of as being “for disappointment to the kings of Israel.” The Hebrew adjective ’akzáv describing something that is deceptive or disappointing here functions as a play on the name Achzib (’akzív). Being deceptive or disappointing, Achzib or its inhabitants would be of no assistance to the kings of Israel. In view of the context, this would be because Achzib would be conquered. (1:14)

YHWH is represented as purposing to bring “one dispossessing” to the “one inhabiting [yasháv] Mareshah.” This indicates that YHWH would permit Mareshah to be conquered and that the residents would be taken away from their city. The singular Hebrew participial form of the verb yasháv in the feminine gender may designate the inhabitants whom the victors would dispossess. Mareshah was an important city in the Shephelah region of Judah. King Rehoboam, the grandson of King David, fortified Mareshah and other cities, including Adullam and Lachish. (2 Chronicles 11:5-12) Centuries earlier Adullam appears to have been the location from which King David launched a successful military action against the Philistines. (2 Samuel 5:17-21; compare 2 Samuel 5:17 with 1 Chronicles 11:15, 16.) For the “glory of Israel” (“glory of the daughter of Israel” [LXX]) to come clear to Adullam could denote the end of the renown David gained as king of Israel when setting forth from Adullam and defeating the Philistines. The kingdom of Judah would experience humiliating defeat when battling the Assyrians, thus causing the former “glory of Israel” to vanish. (1:15; see the Notes section.)

The Septuagint rendering could be understood to refer to a future restoration. At the time God would bring “heirs” to the populace of Lachish — the “inheritance” of the city — “the glory of the daughter of Israel” would “come as far as Odollam [Adullam].” Thus Adullam would come to have the “glory” or honor it did during David’s reign. (1:15)

On account of the humiliation the kingdom of Judah would experience when subjected to Assyrian aggression, the directive is to make bald, shearing off the hair. This outward act would be an expression of grief. The reference to enlarging baldness like an “eagle” (nésher) may allude to what happens to an eagle when molting. In the case of eagles, however, there is no perceivable evidence of baldness because they lose their feathers gradually. So it may be that the Hebrew noun nésher includes the “vulture,” which bird may be described as bald. In expression of mourning, the created state of baldness would be for the “sons of [Judah’s] delight” because they would be taken into exile. These “sons” would be the precious inhabitants of the conquered cities. In the Septuagint, the reference is to enlarging “widowhood” like an eagle because the “delicate children” have been led into captivity. In the case of eagles, it is not uncommon for them to lose their young when they are starting to fly, which development might be understood as enlarging “widowhood.” (1:16)

Notes

In verse 1, the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint read “kings of Judah,” but the Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) (thought to date between 50 BCE and 50 CE) has the singular “king.” In this scroll, the divine name appears in ancient Hebrew script (paleo-Hebrew). For this verse, only the last letter he (H) of the divine name (read from right to left according to Hebrew style, not left to right as is the Greek text) is preserved.

In verse 2, the Septuagint starts with the words, “Hear, O people, words.” The Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) contains only fragments of this verse, but it appears that, like the Masoretic Text, this scroll did not include the noun “words.” In this scroll, the text that is preserved departs from the extant Septuagint reading (“all the ones in it”) and follows the wording of the Hebrew text (“and the fullness of it” or “and its fullness”).

The text for verse 3 in the Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) contains all the letters of the divine name (YHWH) in ancient Hebrew script (paleo-Hebrew).

After “field” in verse 6, the Septuagint includes the conjunction “and,” as does the Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr).

In verse 7, a number of translations contain interpretive renderings that are very specific in what it means to “gather” from the hire of a prostitute and to “return” to the hire of a prostitute. “Because Samaria earned her money by being unfaithful to me, this money will be carried off by others who are not faithful to me.” (NCV) “Silver and gold from those idols will then be used by foreigners as payment for prostitutes.” (CEV) “These things were bought with the money earned by her prostitution, and they will now be carried away to pay prostitutes elsewhere.” (NLT) “Samaria acquired these things for its fertility rites, and now her enemies will carry them off for temple prostitutes elsewhere.” (GNT, Second Edition)

Translators have variously interpreted the phrase regarding the “glory of Israel.” (Verse 15) “Into Adullam will vanish the glory of Israel.” (NJB) “The glory of Israel will be hidden in Adullam.” (REB) “At Adullum the glory of Israel shall set.” (Tanakh) “Then Israel’s glorious king will be forced to hide in the Adullam Cave.” (CEV) “He who is the glory of Israel will come to Adullam.” (NIV)

Micah 2:1-13

Woe or calamity is pronounced upon corrupt Israelites who plotted “wickedness” or schemed to commit oppression and fraud. While lying awake in bed, they made plans to take advantage of others, especially the lowly ones among the people. Then, “in the light of the morning” or early after the sun had risen, these lawless ones carried out their base objectives. It was on account of the “power of their hand” or because they were able to exercise control and exert influence that they succeeded in doing what they wanted. (2:1)

The Septuagint does not include the opening expression of woe but refers to the corrupt Israelites as devising “troubles” or injurious things and “working” or plotting evils or how to harm others to benefit themselves, doing so while lying on their beds at night. Then, at daybreak, they started to bring their schemes to completion. These individuals are described as not lifting “their hands toward God,” revealing that they had no regard for him. They did not praise, thank, or petition him. (2:1)

Dishonest Israelites coveted fields, wanting to increase their own land holdings. Through corrupt means, which could have included bribery and maneuvering disadvantaged persons into a state of hopeless indebtedness, they seized the fields they desired. According to the Septuagint, they “plundered orphans,” depriving them of their inheritance. Through fraudulent means, these lawless ones seized houses. They were ever ready to wrong another man and his household, “a man and his property.” They callously took whatever they wanted. (2:2)

Fraud and oppression had not escaped YHWH’s attention. Therefore, through his prophet, he declared that he would devise “evil” or calamity “against the tribe” of lawless ones. It would be a calamity from which no escape would be possible, as it would be like a yoke on the people’s necks that they could not remove. They would be humiliated and cease walking haughtily as persons who succeeded in attaining their aims, for it would be an “evil” or “calamitous time.” The Septuagint rendering suggests that the people would be bowed down, unable to walk upright. (2:3)

The calamity would provide the basis for a proverbial expression or “parable” (LXX) and for wailing and lamentation. According to the Septuagint, a “lamentation will be lamented in a tune.” One would say, “To be devastated, we are devastated [with affliction we have been afflicted (LXX)]. He will change the portion of my people. How he removes [it] from me. To the apostate [shohvév] he apportions our fields.” The repetition of the verb form for “devastate” or “ruin” denotes the “utter devastation” or ruin of the people of Israel. In the Septuagint, a similar repetition points to great affliction. YHWH, through the instrument he would allow to act, would change the portion or inheritance of the people of Israel, taking it away and giving the fields to others. The Septuagint indicates that the portion or share of the people of Israel would be measured out with a line. When the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel was conquered, the Assyrians exiled the surviving Israelites and gave their land to people of other nations. (2:4; 2 Kings 17:24)

The Hebrew word shohvév literally describes one who turns away or apostatizes. Believing that this could not be the meaning intended, some have conjectured that the probable reading of the Hebrew text is shoveynu (“those taking us captive”), but this does not have the support of the Septuagint. In the Septuagint, the apparent rendering is a form of apostrépho, meaning “turn back” or “to turn away.” The context in which this verb appears differs from the Hebrew text. “[There] was no one hindering him to turn away.” Perhaps this means that no one hindered him so as to cause him to turn away from taking action. The Hebrew word shohvév could be understood to refer to those who were no part of Israel like persons who had turned away, separated themselves, or apostatized from the nation. (2:4)

Because the Israelites would lose their territory, no one among them would be casting out a measuring line for the purpose of determining the boundaries of a parcel of land. This activity would cease “in the congregation of YHWH” or among God’s people Israel. (2:5)

The imperative “do not drop,” meaning do not proclaim words or mere drivel is second person plural. Translators have often rendered this as a singular to apply to the prophet Micah. “‘Enough of your preaching!’ That’s what you tell me.” (CEV) “The people say to me, ‘Do not speak about these things.’” (NLB) It may be, however, that the objection could be understood as applying to Micah and the other prophets of YHWH, for the people as a whole did not welcome their message. Especially the false prophets opposed it. A number of translations represent the false prophets as the ones wanting the proclamation to stop. “The prophets say, ‘Don’t prophesy to us!’” (NCV) “‘Don’t prophesy,’ the people’s prophets say.” (NIRV) (2:6)

If the false prophets are understood to be the ones who wanted YHWH’s true prophets to cease proclaiming the message of judgment, these false prophets may be the ones who were not letting words “drop concerning these” or these things that the true prophets were making known. As a consequence, “reproaches” would “not turn back.” As the words of the false prophets would delude the people into thinking that they did not need to abandon their wayward course, they would experience “reproaches” or the taunts and humiliation to which foreign conquest, in expression of YHWH’s punitive judgment, would lead. (2:6)

A measure of obscurity in the Hebrew text has given rise to interpretive renderings that are directed to Micah. “We won’t be disgraced, so stop preaching!” (CEV) “Don’t prophesy about bad things. Nothing shameful is going to happen to us.” (NIRV) “Don’t prophesy like that. Such disasters will never come our way!” (NLT) “Don’t preach about all that. God is not going to disgrace us.” (GNT, Second Edition) (2:6)

The words in the Septuagint are directed to the people. They are told not to “weep with tears nor to shed tears over these things,” with apparent reference to what they would experience in the time of calamity. The reason for not weeping is that “he will not thrust aside reproaches.” As a defeated people, the Israelites would be subjected to reproaches, and God, to whom they had been unfaithful, would not turn away the taunts of the victors. (2:6)

The question is raised as to whether the “house of Jacob” or the people of Israel should ask, “Is the spirit of YHWH shortened? Are these his deeds?” It seemed to the people that the prophetic words reflected a change in YHWH’s kindly disposition, as if it had been “shortened” or been greatly diminished. Translators have variously rendered the question that includes the Hebrew word for “spirit” (rúach). “Is the Spirit of the LORD angry?” (NIV) “Has Yahweh grown short-tempered?” (NJB) “Is the LORD short of patience …?” (NAB) “Is the LORD’s patience exhausted?” (NRSV) “Is the LORD’s patience truly at an end?” (REB) “Descendants of Jacob, is it right for you to claim that the LORD did what he did because he was angry?” (CEV) The people appear not to have believed that YHWH’s deeds would include their being punished severely for their actions. (2:7)

The next question appears to be YHWH’s answer through his prophet. “Do not my words do good to the one walking in uprightness?” In keeping with his words of promise, YHWH does good to those who conduct themselves uprightly, blessing, guiding, and sustaining them. The implication is that those who do not conduct themselves uprightly would not be recipients of good. YHWH would express his judgment against them according to their lawless actions. (2:7)

While the Septuagint rendering contains some of the same expressions as the extant Hebrew text, an entirely different thought is conveyed, and its significance is obscure. The Septuagint refers to the “house of Jacob” as having infuriated the “spirit of the Lord,” which would be on account of their lawless ways. The Septuagint continues, “If these are his practices, are not his words good with him and going upright?” Possibly this denotes that God’s deeds, including his punitive judgments, confirm that his words are good or trustworthy and not false. These words could be regarded as “going upright” or as having moved forward in the right way, not proving to be false but attaining the goal of exact fulfillment. (2:7)

The Israelites, whom YHWH is represented as calling “my people,” had not conducted themselves as his friends. “And yesterday” (according to another reading, “and you”), already at a time in the past, or “previously” (LXX), they had risen up as an “enemy.” The people seemingly are likened to thieves who “strip off” or quickly snatch away an item from the “front of a garment, a mantel,” of an unsuspecting person passing by. The individual would be like a victorious man returning confidently from battle. In view of the elliptical nature of the Hebrew text, translators vary considerably in their renderings. “You rise up as my enemy to my face, to strip the cloaks from travellers who felt safe or from men returning from the battle.” (REB) “You strip off the rich robe from those who pass by without a care, like men returning from battle.” (NIV) “You have stripped off the mantel covering the tunic of those who go their way in confidence, as though it were spoils of war.” (NAB) “You strip the robe from the peaceful, from those who pass by trustingly with no thought of war.” (NRSV) “From the inoffensive man you snatch his cloak, on those who feel safe you inflict the damage of war.” (NJB) “You have even stolen clothes right off the backs of your unsuspecting soldiers returning home from battle.” (CEV) (2:8)

The Septuagint includes renderings of words that are found in the extant Hebrew text, but a completely different significance is conveyed. “Also previously, my people rose up in enmity. Against his peace, they stripped off his skin to remove hope for the crushing of war.” This could mean that the Israelites, God’s people, manifested their hostility toward him. They acted like persons who resisted peace, like those who flayed captives of war and thereby removed any hope that the conflict would end. (2:8)

Oppressive Israelites were ruthless in their treatment of the disadvantaged ones among the people. The “women” of God’s people must have been widows from whom the oppressors seized their homes. A woman would be driven away from her place — the “house of her delight” or the pleasant home that she had been able to enjoy. From the woman’s children, the ruthless Israelites would take away the “glory.” YHWH is represented as referring to this “glory” as “my glory,” revealing that he is its source. The “glory” YHWH bestowed may apply to the honor or dignity he granted to all his people as free persons with a land inheritance. Oppressive Israelites seized the inheritance of orphans and forced them into slavery and thus ripped away from them their God-given glory. They left these children without hope, as they robbed them of everything for “limitless time.” (2:9)

The application of the words in the Septuagint is to the judgment to befall the unfaithful Israelites. The corrupt leaders of God’s people would be “driven out of the houses of their delight.” “Because of their evil practices,” they would be forced out. The verse concludes with an imperative. “Draw near to the eternal mountains.” This may mean that they should head for the mountains, the stable features of the land, and there seek to find refuge in caves. (2:9)

Through his prophet, YHWH revealed that he would not continue to tolerate the corrupt conduct of the Israelites. To indicate that they would have to leave the land, they are told to arise and go. The land would not be a resting place for them, a home where they could enjoy themselves. This would be “on account of uncleanness that destroys and a sickening destruction.” The “uncleanness” may refer to the defilement of the land through the lawless actions of the people, and that uncleanness would bring about destruction, a destruction of a sickening or grievous kind. Thus the people would be forced out of the land. (2:10; compare Leviticus 18:24-28.)

A measure of obscurity in the extant Hebrew text has given rise to a variety of interpretive renderings. “For this is not your resting place, because it is defiled, it is ruined, beyond all remedy.” (NIV) “This is no resting place because of [your] defilement. Terrible destruction shall befall.” (Tanakh) “To defile yourselves you would commit any mischief however cruel.” (REB) With apparent reference to the wayward people, the Septuagint says, “Because of uncleanness, you were corrupted with corruption.” This suggests that the extent to which the people had defiled themselves brought about their complete ruin. According to the punctuation in Rahlfs’ printed Greek text, the words “because of uncleanness” are linked to the thought about there not being “rest” for the people, and the phrase “you were corrupted with corruption” is a separate sentence. (2:10)

The “man going about [with] wind [rúach (wind or spirit)] and deception” would be a false prophet, a man who “does lie.” His utterances would be “wind,” devoid of any substance and, hence, empty. These utterances would also be “deception,” deluding those who believed the falsehoods. If such a man or a lying prophet were to say, Let me talk [literally, “drop” (words)] to you about “wine and liquor,” the people would listen to him. He would be the proclaimer (the “one dropping” words) to “this people, the Israelites. His drivel about “wine and liquor” would please them, as it assured them that they would not face punitive judgment but would continue to enjoy the pleasures associated with intoxicants. (2:11)

Although the Septuagint includes words that parallel the Hebrew text, the thoughts the Greek rendering expresses are both different and obscure. The Septuagint opens with the words, “You were pursued by no one pursuing.” This could mean that the Israelites acted fearfully, fleeing as if they were being pursued when this was not the case. (Compare Leviticus 26:17.) The Septuagint continues: “A spirit established a lie. It has dropped on you for wine and liquor. And it will be [that], from the drop of this people, a gathering will be gathered to Jacob with all.” The designation “spirit” may here refer to a spiritual influence or to a message that is asserted to be the product of a spirit. False prophets claimed to be under divine influence, but what they proclaimed were lies. Accordingly, the spirit to which they attributed their utterances established falsehoods. This “spirit,” or the message that purported to be from a spiritual source, dropped on the people words “for wine and liquor,” deluding them into thinking that there would be no end to their reveling in the pleasures they derived from their drinking. (2:11)

From a “drop,” possibly meaning a small part of the people who would survive the punitive judgment, there would be a gathering of a full number (“with all”) to Jacob. This may be understood to be a gathering of all of the repentant people who would be identified with Jacob, the forefather of the Israelites. (2:11, 12a [LXX])

To indicate the certainty of YHWH’s restoring all of his repentant people, the Hebrew verbs for “gather” and “collect” are repeated. “To gather, I will gather Jacob [the Israelites, the descendants of Jacob], all of you. To collect, I will collect together the remaining ones of Israel.” In the Septuagint, the words from the initial phrase conclude the sentence that began in the previous verse. (2:12)

With seeming reference to the attention and protective care YHWH purposed to grant the restored Israelites, he is represented as promising to set Jacob or Israel, the people descended from him, like a flock in a sheepfold, like a flock in the midst of a pasture. Sheep and goats in an enclosure would be protected, and would find ample vegetation on which to feed in a pasture. Possibly the phrase about being “noisy with men [adhám, earthling (a collective singular applying to men or people)]” indicates that the restored people of Israel would again become numerous. This basic sense is reflected in the renderings of numerous translations. “Your country will be filled with people.” (NIRV) “Yes, your land will again be filled with noisy crowds!” (NLT) “Your land will once again be filled with many people.” (GNT, Second Edition) “The place will be filled with many people.” (NCV) “The land will be filled with the noise of many people.” (NLB) (2:12)

In other translations, the words are interpreted to apply to the flock. “They will bleat far away from anyone.” (NJB) “They shall not be thrown into panic by men.” (NAB) “I shall herd them like sheep into a fold, like a flock in the pasture, moved away by men.” (REB) (2:12)

The Septuagint rendering represents God as receiving the remnant of Israel, apparently as his forgiven people, and at the same time establishing their return to their land. He would deal with them “like sheep in distress, like a flock in the midst of its fold.” This revealed that the remnant of Israel would have God’s loving care and protection. Of the sheep, the concluding phrase says that “they will leap out [away] from men.” This could denote that the people would be making their escape from those holding them captive as exiles. (2:12)

As exiles in foreign territories, the Israelites would not have been at liberty to return to their own land. The one who would make a breakthrough before them is YHWH, using the agency of his choosing to effect their liberation from captivity. This would make it possible for them to “break through” and to “pass through a gate,” the avenue that had been blocked to them as by a locked gate. As they would be going out, “their king” would be “before them” (literally, “before their face”) and YHWH would be “at their head.” According to the Septuagint rendering, they would “cut through the breach before their face [before them],” departing through the gate. Whereas the Septuagint mentions that “their king went out before their face [before them],” it says that the “Lord will lead them.” (2:13)

When the Israelites returned from Babylonian exile in the sixth century BCE, they did not have a king in the royal line of David in the leading position nor did a descendant of David reign over them in subsequent centuries. This suggests that more than a release from exile in a foreign land is involved in the fulfillment of the prophetic words. They appear to point to the time when, through his sacrificial death, Jesus the Anointed One, Messiah, or Christ made possible a liberation from the captivity to sin and the condemnation of death to which sin leads. The remnant of Israel that accepted him and his sacrifice for them experienced this liberation and began to benefit from his guidance and care. (John 8:21, 24, 34-36) At the same time, as persons forgiven of their sins, they were fully reconciled to God as his beloved people, and he, in the ultimate sense, is “at their head,” leading them through his Son. (2:13)

Micah 3:1-12

The ones whom Micah called upon to hear or to listen are designated as the “heads of Jacob” and “rulers of the house of Israel.” As parallel expressions, “heads of Jacob” and “rulers of the house of Israel” apply to the leaders in the kingdom of Judah. (3:10) They should have been rendering just decisions and been exemplary in upholding justice. As the context indicates, the question (“[Is it] not for you to know judgment?”) implies that, based on their actions, they did not “know judgment,” for they handled affairs in a manner that made it appear as though they did not know what it meant to deal justly. (3:1)

The Septuagint opens with the words, “And he will say, Now hear these [words].” Those told to listen are identified as two groups — “heads of the house of Jacob” and the “remaining ones” or the “rest of the house of Israel.” This could mean that both the rulers and all the other Israelites in the kingdom of Judah were being questioned as to whether they should not “know judgment,” manifesting such knowledge by being honest and just. (3:1)

So corrupt and oppressive were the leaders of the Israelites that they could be described as “hating good and loving evil” or, according to the Septuagint, “hating the good things and seeking the evil things.” They treated the people like animals to be slaughtered, seizing everything they could from them. The actions of these oppressors were comparable to their skinning the people and tearing away the flesh from their bones. (3:2)

The ruthlessness with which the oppressors acted is likened to slaughtering animals and consuming the meat. In preparation for devouring the flesh of the people or depriving them of what they needed to live, corrupt Israelites dealt with them savagely as if skinning them, breaking their bones in pieces, and cutting up the flesh to be placed in a pot. Those who were subjected to oppression were crushed, coming to resemble pieces of meat in a cauldron. (3:3)

Although they had made themselves guilty of grave injustices, the oppressors still regarded themselves as God’s people. When facing calamity in expression of YHWH’s punitive judgment, they would cry out to him for aid, but he would not respond to them. They would not be spared from experiencing the deserved punishment. At that time, YHWH would “hide his face from them” or, according to the Septuagint, “turn his face away from them,” refusing to grant them any favorable attention. They would then be repaid “according to their evil deeds.” The Septuagint rendering is more specific than the Hebrew text when identifying the evil of the oppressors as having been done to others (literally, “them”). (3:4)

Through Micah, YHWH directed a message to the prophets who were misleading the people. Unlike Micah who exposed wrongdoing and thus indicated that lawless ones needed to change their ways, the false prophets made the people believe that they could continue living contrary to YHWH’s commands and did not need to fear a future day of reckoning. The false prophets are described as “those biting with their teeth” or as men partaking of food obtained for their services. Upon receiving the price that meant food in their mouths, they would proclaim assurances of “peace,” well-being, or security. If, however, they got nothing for their mouths, they “sanctified,” readied for, or “aroused” (LXX) “war” against those who did not support them. In expression of their hostility, they may have responded with threats of disaster, curses, and efforts to silence anyone who disregarded them. They may have gone to the point of seeking to bring about the death of true prophets. (3:5; compare Jeremiah 26:11.)

YHWH’s judgment against the false prophets was that they would be plunged into total darkness. It would always be night for them, leaving them without any vision to report. Being in the dark, they would be unable “to divine.” Their circumstances would be comparable to having the sun set upon them for the whole day, enshrouding them in darkness for the entire period. (3:6)

Left without anything to report about what they had seen or what had been revealed to them, the visionaries (those seeing dreams [LXX]) would be ashamed. Those engaging in divining would have nothing revelatory to relate, leading to embarrassment or disgrace for them. With no answer from God to any of these men, they would cover their mustaches, probably meaning their faces. They would be so ashamed that they would seek to avoid being recognized by anyone. (3:7)

According to the Septuagint, the diviners would be laughed at, and all of them would contradict one another. Therefore, no one would listen to them. (3:7)

Micah, however, with the “spirit of YHWH” operating upon him, was “full of power” and of “judgment and might.” This suggests that he was divinely granted courage to make known YHWH’s judgment and to do so in a forceful manner. Thus empowered, he would “declare to Jacob his transgression [impious deeds (LXX)] and to Israel his sin [sins (LXX)].” Jacob and Israel are parallel designations referring to the Israelites who descended from Jacob whose name was changed to Israel. Micah would not hold back from boldly exposing the sins of his people. (3:8)

As in verse 1, Micah asked the “heads of Jacob” and “rulers of the house of Israel” to “hear” or to listen to what he would say to them. Both designations apply to the leaders in the kingdom of Judah who should have been upholding justice. They, however, made themselves guilty of grave injustices, revealing themselves to be men who abhorred judgment or justice and who perverted or twisted what was “straight,” right, or true. (3:9)

The initial words of the Septuagint may be rendered, “Now hear these [words].” Those asked to listen are identified as two groups — “rulers of the house of Jacob” and the “remaining ones” or the “rest of the house of Israel.” The wording suggests that both the rulers and all the other Israelites in the kingdom of Judah were guilty of abhorring “judgment” and perverting “all the straight things” or upright things. (3:9)

The corrupt leaders are described as building Zion “with blood” and Jerusalem “with injustice.” Zion and Jerusalem are parallel designations for the capital of the kingdom of Judah. In order to seize the property of others for their own purposes, the oppressive rulers must have shed innocent blood. (Compare 1 Kings 21:7-16.) Instead of handing down just decisions, they would have accepted bribes and then perverted justice. Their corrupt decisions could also have led to killing innocent Israelites. The imposing structures they may have erected in the city would thus have been built with the blood of innocent people and with the gains from unjust practices. (3:10)

When functioning as judges, the “heads” or leaders in Jerusalem accepted bribes. Priests taught or provided answers to inquirers for a price. Prophets who misled the people divined for the payment of silver (the then-common medium of exchange). Although all of them pursued unjust gain, they imagined that YHWH was in their midst and would protect them so that no evil or calamity would come upon them. (3:11)

On account of the corruption of the leaders, priests, and prophets whom YHWH had not called to his service, Zion or Jerusalem would cease to be an inhabited city and the site would be plowed like a field. Jerusalem would be reduced to piles of rubble. According to the Septuagint, the city would come to be like a “watchman’s hut,” probably like one that is neglected and deserted. “The mountain of the house,” or the site where the temple stood, would become like the “high places of a forest.” Perhaps this indicated that the temple site would resemble a nearly treeless areas above the dense forest covering the side of a mountain. The Septuagint refers to a “grove of a thicket” or a grove of small trees. Translators have variously interpreted the words “high places of a forest” to mean a height covered with “thorns” (CEV) or “with bushes and weeds” (NIRV), “overgrown with thickets” (NIV), “rough moorland” (REB), “a forest ridge” (NAB), “a wooded height” (NJB, NRSV), and “a shrine in the woods.” (Tanakh) (3:12)

Micah 4:1-13

With a few minor differences, the words of Micah 4:1-3 are identical to those of Isaiah 2:2-4. The Talmud (Baba Bathra 14b, 15a) attributes the writing of Isaiah to Hezekiah and his colleagues. If the Talmud preserves a reliable tradition and men in Hezekiah’s court also recorded the words of Micah, this would explain why the language about the same development is virtually identical.

The words “latter [part] of the days” or “last days” apply to an indeterminate future period far beyond the time of Micah. Anciently, sites for the worship of various deities were positioned on hills and mountains. Therefore, the establishment of the “mountain of the house of YHWH” (the site on which his temple stood) on “top of the mountains” and its elevation above the hills pointed to the unsurpassed lofty position pure worship eventually would come to have. With the “house of YHWH” towering above all eminences, the elevated sites associated with false worship would be reduced to nothingness. Peoples from the various nations would then stream to the “mountain of the house of YHWH.” According to the Septuagint, “peoples will hasten to it.” (4:1)

Evidently because peoples from many nations would come to recognize the importance of divinely approved worship, they are depicted as motivated to ascend the mountain on which the “house” or temple of YHWH is located. They would also invite others to join them. The reference to the “house of the God of Jacob” suggests that people of the nations would acknowledge the true Israelites as the people whose God is YHWH and as those who belong to him. Moreover, they would desire to be associated with this people. (Compare John 4:22.) Their purpose in going to the “house of YHWH” as the final destination would be to have him teach them “his ways,” coming to know the course they should be following to have his approval. The Septuagint rendering indicates that they would be shown his ways. As taught ones, the people of the nations would then “walk” or conduct themselves according to the divinely approved course (YHWH’s “paths”). (4:2)

In the time of Micah, YHWH’s temple was located in Zion or Jerusalem. Therefore, the “law” (Torah or instruction) and the “word of YHWH” are represented as proceeding from there. From the standpoint of its being YHWH’s representative place of dwelling, it was the place from which the revelation of his will and purpose would emanate. (4:2)

The prophetic words about judgment assured that YHWH would judge the peoples according to the highest standard of justice and would reprove or correct the people of “mighty nations.” This would result in a tremendous change in their disposition and actions. People from many nations would rid themselves of the former hatreds that gave rise to repeated conflicts. As persons who accept YHWH’s instruction and correction, they would convert weapons (swords and spears) into implements (plowshares and pruning knives) for peaceful agricultural operations. They would not share in raising a weapon (a sword) against people of another nation. Never again would they learn ways for waging war. (4:3)

This has been fulfilled in connection with the worship in spirit and truth to which Jesus Christ referred when speaking to a Samaritan woman. (John 4:21-24) The apostle Paul commented on the remarkable changes that had taken place in the lives of Jesus Christ’s disciples, including the banishing of hatreds from their midst. “For the grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation to all, training us to renounce impiety and worldly passions, and in the present age to live lives that are self-controlled, upright, and godly. … For we ourselves were once foolish, disobedient, led astray, slaves to various passions and pleasures, passing our days in malice and envy, despicable, hating one another.” (Titus 2:11-3:3, NRSV)

The end of war is represented as making it possible for people to have a secure and contented life, with each man or person sitting “under his vine and under his fig tree.” This is a portrayal of everyone being able to enjoy rest and refreshment, being able to benefit to the full from the fruits of their labors. Nothing would give rise to fear, as did enemy invasions and conflicts in the past. The certainty respecting the changed circumstances is emphasized with the solemn assurance, “for the mouth of YHWH of hosts [the Lord Almighty (LXX)] has spoken.” As the God with hosts of angels in his service and as the Almighty, YHWH can most assuredly accomplish his purpose. No power can stop him from carrying out his promises. (4:4; see the Notes section.)

In matters of worship, Micah contrasted the course of people of the nations with that of those who are genuine Israelites, God’s people in the true sense. Each man or each person from all the people of the nations would walk in the “name of his gods” or in recognition of the various deities he revered. Devoted servants of YHWH, as was Micah, resolved to “walk in the name of YHWH” for all time to come. Their determination to walk only in his name indicated that they would exclusively acknowledge and serve him as their God. (4:5; see the Notes section.)

“In that day” refers to the time when pure worship would be highly exalted, with many people from all the nations abandoning former ways and seeking to live in harmony with God’s will. Regarding that time, the “utterance of YHWH,” or the expression of his purpose, is to “gather” his people. The ones who are designated as the “limp,” “lame,” or “crushed” (LXX) may be the Israelites who had not been fully devoted to YHWH and had strayed in doing his will. They could be described as being “lame” or having limped along instead of having faithfully adhered to the right course. Another possible meaning is that the reference is to the lowly ones among the people who were oppressed and were looked down upon like lame animals of a flock. As the Septuagint rendering suggests, the lowly ones among the Israelites would have been “crushed.” The expression “banished” could either apply to outcasts or to exiled people. If the meaning is “outcasts,” the term could apply to the lowly Israelites whom the oppressors treated like outcasts. (4:6)

The hardships and mistreatment that YHWH allowed the Israelites to experience is the basis for his being represented as saying that he had afflicted them and that it was his will to gather them. Initially, a repentant remnant was permitted to return to their land after Babylon fell to the Persian conqueror Cyrus and his forces. A more remarkable gathering occurred when Jesus, the promised Anointed One, Messiah, or Christ appeared on the scene. The remnant of Israelites who accepted him and the benefits of his sacrificial death for them were liberated from sin and the condemnation to which sin leads, being fully restored to God as his approved children. (4:6)

The “limp,” lame or “crushed” (LXX) ones, either the lowly oppressed Israelites or those who had strayed from the right course, would, as a repentant people, be constituted one divinely approved remnant. Exiled Israelites who had been far removed from their land would be restored to YHWH’s favor upon repenting of the transgressions that had led to their being afflicted, and they would come to be a “mighty nation.” YHWH would “rule over them on the mountain of Zion” from then onward and for limitless time to come. “Mount Zion,” the location of YHWH’s temple, was his representative place of dwelling. Therefore, his rule is portrayed as being from that location, whereas he exercises dominion from heaven or from the spirit realm. (4:7; see the Notes section.)

YHWH’s rule is referred to as coming to the “tower of a flock, the hill of the daughter of Zion.” The designation “tower of the flock” suggests that “the hill of the daughter of Zion” or the elevated site of Jerusalem, would come to be a location where the “flock” or God’s people would enjoy his protection and be as secure as in a strong fortress. The former dominion of the “kingdom of the daughter of Jerusalem” would be restored. This meant that there would again be a king in the royal line of David reigning in Jerusalem. That, however, did not happen after a remnant of Israelites returned from Babylon exile. (4:8)

The prophetic language points to a far more impressive reality than the restoration of desolated Jerusalem as an inhabited city in the Persian Empire. Concerning the circumstances that existed among the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the other Israelites living in the land, Nehemiah could say, “We are slaves,” and “we are slaves” on the land you, YHWH, “gave to our ancestors.” (Nehemiah 9:36) In the first century CE, those who became citizens of the “heavenly Jerusalem” ceased to be slaves. Forgiven of their sins, they were truly free, enjoying a dignified standing as God’s approved children and benefiting from his protective care and loving attention. His appointed king, Jesus the promised Messiah in the line of David, is their king. (4:8; Galatians 4:26; Hebrews 12:22)

The Septuagint rendering, however, does not convey a comforting message for Jerusalem. It represents the “daughter of Zion” as the “dry [auchmódes] tower of a flock.” As a description of the city, possibly the Greek word auchmódes (“dry” or “arid”) indicates that Jerusalem would be weak and not a strong “tower” that could provide security for the “flock” or the people. The city would be facing conquest. A “kingdom out of Babylon” would “enter the daughter of Jerusalem.” (4:8)

The questions that are raised pointed to the future devastation of the city. With apparent reference to the outcry of fear and alarm that would resound from the besieged city, the question is, “Now why will you shout a shout?” According to the Septuagint rendering, the question is, “And now why did you know calamities?” Such knowing would be on account of experiencing distress. (4:9)

A king would be expected to launch a defense against the attackers, and the absence of a successful defense is alluded to in the question about whether there was no king in Jerusalem. For counselors to perish would mean that there would be no one able to offer sound advice for dealing with the serious threat to the city. Would the anguish that seized Jerusalem like that of a woman in childbirth be because there was no king and because counselors had perished? In the Septuagint, the reference is to the perishing of “counsel.” (4:9)

The “daughter of Zion” or the city of Jerusalem would suffer like a woman writhing and bringing forth in childbirth. In the Hebrew text, the verbs for “writhe” and “bring forth” are expressed as imperatives. The Septuagint reads, “Be in labor pains, and be manly [be strong or be courageous], and draw near, daughter of Zion, like one giving birth.” Jerusalem, meaning the inhabitants of the city, would “go out” from a city and “dwell in the field.” This could refer to their being forced to leave the city as exiles and traveling and sleeping in open country until their journey ended at Babylon. There, at Babylon, the exiles would be delivered. From there, YHWH would redeem or liberate his people from the “hand” or the power and control of their enemies. (4:10)

Before the calamitous fall of Jerusalem and the later restoration of the people from exile, “many nations” would assemble against Jerusalem. The attackers would look forward to the desolation of the city, saying, “Let her be profaned and let our eyes gaze upon Zion.” The profaning of Zion or Jerusalem may be understood to mean ravaging the city, reducing it to piles of rubble and thus constituting it a cause for shame to the surviving inhabitants. Gazing upon Zion denotes looking at the defeated city with malicious glee. The Septuagint does not refer to the profaning of the city but represents those assembled against the “daughter of Zion” as saying, “We will rejoice, and our eyes will look upon Zion.” (4:11)

The “nations,” more specifically their military forces, that would assemble against Jerusalem would not “know” or recognize that they were only serving as YHWH’s instrument to execute judgment on his wayward people. They would not discern this as being his “counsel” or purpose. Therefore, they would not realize that, in acting hatefully against YHWH’s people, they would have gathered themselves against them to be severely punished for their ruthless actions. YHWH would permit the assembling of the nations against Jerusalem. From this standpoint, he is the one who would be gathering them like a row of cut grain (“sheaves” [LXX]) on a threshing floor. (4:12)

The “daughter of Zion” or Jerusalem is invited to arise and to thresh the enemy nations. YHWH is represented as making her like a bovine with a “horn” (“horns” [LXX]) of iron and hoofs of bronze. Thus empowered, Jerusalem would be able to crush the many peoples to be threshed. The purpose for this action would be to devote to YHWH as with a sacred ban the “gain” (“abundance” [LXX]) from the nations and all their wealth (“strength” [LXX and also a meaning of the Hebrew word for “wealth”] to him, the “Lord of all the earth.” (4:13)

The military triumphs the Jews attained under the leadership of the three sons of Mattathias ben Johanan in the second century BCE were impressive. These victories, if at all, may merely be regarded as a partial fulfillment of the prophetic words. A complete fulfillment appears to be linked to the heavenly Zion or Jerusalem, which will triumph over all enemy powers. As the foretold Messianic king who rules from heavenly Zion, Jesus will ultimately make everything subject to his Father, the “Lord of all the earth.” (4:13; compare Psalm 110:1, 2; 1 Corinthians 15:24-28.)

Notes

In verse 4, the Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr) preserves the last two letters (waw [W] and he [H]) of the divine name (YHWH) in paleo-Hebrew script. The partially preserved text reads, “for the mouth of YHWH of forces has spoken.”

The Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr), in verse 5, preserves the first two letters (yod [Y] and he [H]) of the divine name (YHWH) in paleo-Hebrew script. Based on the letters that are found in this fragmentary text, the verse reads, “For all the peoples will walk in the name of their god, but we will walk in the name of YHWH our God forever and ever [literally, into the age and beyond].” The extant Septuagint text differs for the first part of this verse, “For all the peoples will walk, each one [in] its way.”

In the Greek Minor Prophets scroll (8HevXIIgr), verse 7 contains all the letters of the divine name (YHWH) in paleo-Hebrew script.

Micah 5:1-15 (4:14-5:14)

The adverb rendered “now” points to a change in the subject regarding the triumphant role of Zion or Jerusalem. One who would besiege Micah’s people, the Israelites, is introduced but not specifically identified. In view of the reference to a siege, Jerusalem is seemingly represented as a woman who, in great distress, slashes herself. The Hebrew verb that may be rendered “cut” or “slash” is a form of gadád, and appears to be the object of a play on the noun gedúd (“band” or “marauding band”) in the expression “daughter of a band.” Perhaps, on account of the oppressive seizures by the leaders of Jerusalem, the city is called “daughter of a band,” either a band of robbers or a band of looting warriors. (5:1[4:14])

The Septuagint rendering conveys an entirely different meaning, opening with the words, “Now the daughter of Ephraim will be blocked with a barrier.” Ephraim, as the dominant tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel, here may represent that realm, and its being blocked may be mean that it would be besieged. With seeming reference to Micah’s people, the Israelites in the kingdom of Judah, YHWH appears to be represented as the one who “appointed distress” or a “siege” for them. They would be submitted to punitive judgment. (5:1[4:14)

According to the Hebrew text, the one judging or the “judge of Israel” would be the king. “With a rod,” he would be struck “on the cheek.” The striking on the cheek would be an act of insult and humiliation. When linked to the next verse, the one who would be submitted to mistreatment is the future Messianic ruler to come from Bethlehem. During the period of Micah’s prophesying, no king came from Bethlehem and this was also the case in subsequent years. The royal residence was Jerusalem, and men in the line of kings that ended with Zedekiah would, therefore, have been born in Jerusalem. Jesus, the promised Anointed One, Messiah, or Christ, was born in Bethlehem, and he was submitted to abusive treatment. (5:1 [5:14]; Matthew 26:67, 68; 27:30; Mark 14:65; 15:19; Luke 22:63, 64; John 18:22; 19:2, 3)

The Septuagint does not mention the “judge of Israel,” but says, “With a rod, they will strike the tribes of Israel on the cheek.” These words indicate that the Israelites would experience humiliating treatment from their enemies. (5:1 [5:14])

Bethlehem, a town located less than 6 miles (c. 9 kilometers) from Jerusalem, was not a significant place. It may be that Ephrathah (“house of Ephrathah” [LXX]) was the older name for the town. Although little among the “thousands of Judah,” or a place with a small number of inhabitants, Bethlehem would be the town from which would come out for YHWH one who would go forth “to become a ruler in Israel,” and his “goings forth” would be “from days of limitless [past] time” or “from days of long ago.” (5:2[5:1])

According to Matthew 2:3-6, the Jewish chief priests and scribes identified Bethlehem as the place where the Messiah or Christ would be born, doing so on the basis of the words recorded in the prophecy of Micah. Although the words from Micah that are quoted in Matthew 2:6 differ from the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, they do convey the same basic thought. Moreover, the comment about the “goings forth from days of long ago” are not included. Because David, the first king from the tribe of Judah, came from Bethlehem, some have concluded that the one referred to in Micah 5:2[5:1] had his origin in the royal line that had its start with David from Bethlehem centuries earlier. A number of translations have interpretively rendered the words to apply to the human line of descent. “His family line goes back to the early years of your nation.” (NIRV) “Out of you I will bring a ruler for Israel, whose family line goes back to ancient times.” (GNT, Second Edition) It appears preferable, however, to view the words about the Messiah’s “goings forth” to apply in a unique way to Jesus the promised Anointed One or Christ. He had a prehuman existence that reached back to the infinite past. (5:2[5:1]; John 1:1; 3:13; 8:23; 17:5, 13)

It appears that YHWH is the one who would “give up” the people of Israel or permit them to become subject to other nations. In subsequent years, the Israelites would no longer have a king in the royal line of David from the tribe of Judah. This circumstance would not end until such time as “one bringing forth has brought forth,” or until the promised Messiah would be born in Bethlehem. Then the “remainder of his brothers,” possibly meaning fellow members of the tribe of Judah, would “return” to YHWH as repentant ones joined to the “sons of Israel” or repentant Israelites from the other tribes. (5:3 [5:2])

As ruler, the Messianic king would be attentive to the welfare of his devoted subjects. He is represented as “shepherding,” indicating that he would be protecting his subjects and looking after their needs. The Septuagint says that “he will stand and look and shepherd his flock.” He would do his shepherding “in the strength of YHWH, in the majesty of the name of YHWH his God.” As the king, he would serve his subjects in full harmony with God’s will and, therefore, would enjoy the full strength of his backing. YHWH his God is the Supreme Sovereign in possession of unsurpassed dignity, majesty, or “glory” (LXX). The majesty or “glory” of the “name” denotes the splendor or magnificence belonging to the bearer of the name. According to the Septuagint, the people “will exist in the glory of the name of the Lord their God,” suggesting that their existence will be dependent on their glorious or magnificent God. (5:4 [5:3]; see the Notes section.)

The subjects of the Messianic king would “dwell,” probably meaning that they would be settled securely. In the Septuagint, the Hebrew word for “dwell” is rendered as a future tense verb that may be translated “will exist,” with the existence of the people being linked to God’s glorious name. According to the Hebrew text and the Septuagint, the Messianic king would “now” be “great to the ends of the earth.” This suggests that he would be recognized everywhere as occupying an unassailable position. (5:4 [5:3])

There is no indication that the reference to “Asshur” or the Assyrian points to a time before the appearance of the ruler who would come out of Bethlehem. This means that the “Assyrian” represents a power that is hostile to those whom God recognizes as belonging to him, his people or the true Israel. The phrase mentioning “peace” may be translated so as to indicate that the promised ruler would secure peace or well-being and security for his subjects. A number of translations convey this significance. “He will be their peace.”(NIV) “He will bring peace.” (CEV) Because the Hebrew verb for “will be” can also mean “it will be,” other translators have chosen this meaning. “Then there will be peace.” (REB) “And that shall afford safety.” (Tanakh) According to these renderings, the greatness that the ruler from Bethlehem attained (5:4[3]) would result in peace for the people. With possible application to the counter measures God’s people would employ when the Assyrians entered their land, the Septuagint says, “And this will be peace.” (5:5[5:4])

An invasion by Asshur or the Assyrian would be repulsed. When the Assyrian invades and treads upon their fortresses or the fortified places, God’s people would “raise up against him seven shepherds and eight princes of man [adhám (earthling)]” to deal with the threat. (5:5[4])

Considering that Jesus is the Anointed One, Messiah, or Christ who came from Bethlehem, this would not fit developments respecting ancient Assyria, which had ceased being a mighty world power many centuries earlier. Therefore, “Asshur” or Assyria would represent an enemy power. Jesus granted his followers authority “over all the power of the enemy.” (Luke 10:19) This assured that, among his disciples, men would be raised up to defend the community of believers against those who would seek to bring ruin to them as approved children of God. These men would function like caring shepherds in looking after the welfare of the flock, resisting those who were intent on doing harm. In being called “princes of man,” these particular protectors of the community of believers are identified as men, not angels. The number “seven” represents completeness, and so the number “eight” could indicate that there would be more than enough devoted men to serve in the interests of the loyal subjects of Jesus, the Messianic king. In the Septuagint, the “eight” are called dégmata, meaning “stings” and so could designate men who would act defensively to protect Jesus’ followers. (5:5[4]; compare Acts 20:28; Ephesians 4:11-15; 1 Timothy 4:1-11; 2 Timothy 2:20-22; Jude 22, 23; Revelation 2:2.)

To highlight the authority that the complete number of “shepherds” and “princes” would have over the power of the enemy, they are represented as “shepherding” the land of Asshur or Assyria “with the sword and the land of Nimrod in its entrances.” The “land of Assyria” and the “land of Nimrod” are parallel expressions, for Nimrod is identified in the Genesis account (10:9-12) as the builder of Nineveh in Assyria (Asshur). Those doing the shepherding with the sword would be acting to destroy or nullify the power of the enemy. (Compare Revelation 2:26, 27; 12:5; 19:15.) Positioned at the entrances, they would not let anyone escape. (5:6[5]; see the Notes section.)

It appears that the deliverance from Assyria is attributed to the ruler from Bethlehem, the Messianic king. When “Assyria,” or an enemy power, invades the land and treads on its boundaries, the Messianic king would come to the rescue. In the case of Jesus’ disciples, their land and its borders may be understood to designate the realm where Jesus is acknowledged as King of kings and Lord of lords and which realm is, therefore, no part of the world alienated from God. No invader would be permitted to bring ruin to that realm, causing devoted subjects of Jesus their Lord and King to be deprived of heavenly citizenship as God’s free and approved children. No enemy power would be allowed to make them captives, ripping them out of their realm. (5:6[5]; compare John 17:11-16; Galatians 4:26-31; 1 Peter 1:3-5.)

In relation to the ruler from Bethlehem, the “remnant of Jacob” [“among the nations” [LXX]) would be true Israelites, the devoted subjects of Jesus, the Messianic king. “In the midst of many peoples,” they would be “like dew from YHWH, like showers on vegetation, which will not wait for man and will not be in expectation for the sons of man.” Humans have no direct part in effecting the formation of dew. As part of the natural cycle that exists in the creation and which man neither provides nor controls, the dew is represented as coming from YHWH. Showers and rain likewise are not dependent on man. To flourish, vegetation needs precipitation, but it does not wait for humans to provide the rain nor is there any expectation that it would come about through human agency. (5:7[6])

During times of very limited rainfall, dew is vital in preventing vegetation from drying up. Loyal subjects of Jesus, the King of kings and Lord of lords, are like dew, sharing a message of comfort and hope that brings refreshment to those who respond among people of the nations. Their praiseworthy conduct also makes them like dew. Members of the true Israel, the “remnant of Jacob,” are like refreshing dew and rain in bringing benefits to people of the various nations and in being a strong influence for good. Persons who might be likened to parched vegetation, dead in trespasses and sins, and who are then motivated to acknowledge Jesus as their Lord who died for them come to enjoy a newness of life as individuals forgiven of their sins and come to have the status of approved children of God. When those who recognize Jesus as their king adhere to the highest standard of honesty, industriousness, conscientiousness, and moral rectitude, this tends to counteract the tendency toward moral degradation among those with whom they interact. By refusing to resort to filthy and abusive speaking, they influence others to become more circumspect in their expressions. Their compassionate and loving response to those in need, their kind, impartial treatment of fellow humans, and their friendly and caring disposition, contribute to making life more pleasant for other members of the human family. (5:7[6])

The extant Septuagint text makes no mention of showers or rain. It likens the “remnant of Jacob” to “lambs on grass” against which no one may assemble and with reference to which no one “among the sons of men should stand.” Perhaps this may be understood to indicate that, under the care and protection of the Messianic king, the true Israelites would be secure, with no one being able to mount an attack against them nor to resist them. (5:7[6])

Furthermore, the “remnant of Jacob among the nations in the midst of may peoples” is likened to a “lion among beasts of a forest” (a fierce predator among other wild animals in a forest), a “young lion among flocks of sheep.” Represented as passing through flocks of sheep, the lion tramples and tears animals it seizes, and there is no deliverance for the sheep under attack. According to the Septuagint, the lion selects one of the sheep and seizes it. In a role like that of a lion, members of the true Israel are courageous in the fight against those who seek their ruin. (5:8[7])

The fierce battle comparable to the attack of a lion may be illustrated by what the apostle Paul wrote to the Corinthians. He waged spiritual warfare, demolishing views or opinions that conflicted with God’s ways, exposing them as worthless and injurious. His fight was against things that were high and raised up “against the knowledge of God,” which could include everything that defiant humans had exalted as a bulwark against what God had revealed to be his will and purpose. Paul fought hard to triumph over all wrong thoughts, reducing them to the helpless state of captives in subjection to Christ. Like bound captives, these wrong thoughts were deprived of all power to do harm. (5:8[7]; 2 Corinthians 10:4, 5)

The second person singular pronouns pertaining to “hand” and “enemies” (“your hand”; “your enemies”) may be understood to apply to God’s people, the true Israel, as a whole. For the hand of the true Israel to be lifted up against the “foes” (those oppressing them [LXX]) would mean that God’s people would be triumphant. As in the case of their Lord, the Messianic king Jesus, they would prove to be unconquerable, remaining firm in their devotion to God with the help of his spirit and not succumbing to the corruption of a world at enmity with him. (Compare John 16:33; 1 John 5:3, 4.) All their enemies would be “cut off” (annihilated [LXX]). No enemy power would succeed against them and, ultimately, Jesus, the Messianic king, would destroy those who remain intransigent enemies of his loyal subjects. (5:9[8]; compare 2 Thessalonians 1:6-10.)

According to the “utterance of YHWH,” he has determined to cut off or destroy from the midst of his people the very things in which the wayward Israelites had trusted. This would be in the “day” or the time when his people would be victorious over their enemies. In the past, the Israelites had relied on the availability of “horses” and “chariots” for warfare so as to be secure, but these would be cut off or destroyed from the midst of the true Israel, indicating that they would not exist. Accordingly, the victories of God’s devoted people would not be achieved with military might but would take place because of their trust in him. (5:10[9])

Instead of relying fully on YHWH to protect them, unfaithful Israelites trusted in their walled cities and their fortresses to make them safe from enemy attacks. In the case of the true Israel, YHWH would cut off or destroy the cities of their land and all their fortresses or strongholds. Motivated by God’s spirit to look to him alone for their security, the true Israel would be like a people without cities or fortresses. (5:11[10]; see the Notes section.)

Contrary to God’s law, unfaithful Israelites engaged in occult practices when seeking guidance in dealing with dangers and threats, but these practices would be completely banished from the true Israel. YHWH is represented as decreeing that he would cut off or remove (LXX) sorceries from their hand. Soothsaying or fortunetelling would not exist among God’s devoted people, as they would look exclusively to him and their king, the Lord Jesus Christ, for guidance and direction. (5:12[11])

Among the Israelites who disregarded God’s law, idolatry was a major part of their life. YHWH is represented as declaring that he would cut off or destroy idols and pillars (probably phallic representations) from the midst of the true Israel. His devoted people would never again bow down to the “works of [their] hands” or to images of human manufacture. Idolatry would have no place among them. (5:13[12])

YHWH is represented as declaring that he would “root out” the “Asherim” from the midst of his people. The “Asherim” may have been sacred poles that represented Asherah, the fertility goddess which wayward Israelites adored. No such appendages of idolatry would exist among those whom YHWH recognized as his approved people. In the Septuagint, the reference is to God’s cutting down the sacred groves, the sites where unfaithful Israelites had engaged in the veneration of false gods and goddesses. Again YHWH is represented as decreeing that he would destroy the “cities.” Possibly the destruction of the cities is here to be understood as indicating the end for the idolatrous practices in which unfaithful Israelites engaged there. (5:14[13])

YHWH is revealed as decreeing that, “in anger and in wrath,” he would execute vengeance on the nations that have “not listened” or that have defiantly chosen to disregard his will. Whereas he has earlier been represented as removing from the midst of his true people everything that had formerly ensnared the Israelites, he is here represented as taking action against their enemies whose actions have merited his wrath. (5:15[14])

Notes

In the first occurrence of the divine name (YHWH) (verse 4[3]), the Greek Minor Prophets scroll preserves only the last letter he (H) in paleo-Hebrew script, and it is followed by the conjunction “and” (kaí), which is not included in the Septuagint nor in the Masoretic Text. For the second occurrence of the divine name, the Greek scroll preserves all the letters of the name in paleo-Hebrew script.

In verse 6(5), the Septuagint does not refer to the “entrances” in connection with the “land of Nimrod.” The Greek word is a form of táphros, meaning “trench” or “ditch” and possibly designating a defensive feature.

The reference to YHWH’s “cutting off” of cities and his “casting down” of fortresses (verse 11[10]) indicates that the prophetic words did not apply to those who returned from Babylonian exile. The returning exiles rebuilt towns and cities and took up residence in them. Nehemiah was greatly concerned that Jerusalem long existed without a protective wall. (Nehemiah 1:3; 2:3-5)

Micah 6:1-16

The appeal to “hear” or to pay attention to what YHWH says is directed to the Israelites as a people. In the Septuagint, the opening words are, “Hear indeed a word of the Lord; the Lord has spoken.” The people as a body are told to arise. The purpose for thus taking their stand was so that they might contend with YHWH or present a defense for their wayward course, doing so before the mountains and in a manner that would make it possible for the hills to hear their voice. This indicated that the entire proceeding would be as public as possible. (6:1)

Then the mountains and the firm “foundations of the earth” are called upon to “hear” YHWH’s controversy or his case against the unfaithful Israelites. According to the reading of the Greek text in fourth-century Codex Vaticanus, the peoples are told to hear the “judgment of the Lord,” but other Greek texts read either “mountains” or “hills.” Additionally, the Greek word for “ravines” or “chasms” appears before the expression “foundations of the earth,” whereas the Hebrew text has a word that may be rendered “firm” or “permanent.” The expression “foundations of the earth” may refer to the supports on which the the ancient perceived the land to rest in relation to bodies of water that lay below the level of the ground. The controversy that YHWH had with his people was the case that he had against them, and his “plea” or “dispute” with Israel designated what he would make known to the people respecting their disapproved conduct and their reasons for it. (6:2)

YHWH is represented as asking his people what he had done to them and wherein he had wearied them. They were told to respond, presenting their testimony as to what he had done or how he had burdened them in a way that would have justified their disregard for his commands. In the Septuagint, the question is, “What have I done to you, or how have I saddened you, or how have I distressed you?” (6:3)

Through his prophet, YHWH reminded his people that he had dealt with them in a caring and loving way. He had brought them out of the land of Egypt, redeeming or delivering them from the “house of slaves” or from Egypt where they had been enslaved. YHWH had provided the people with caring servants — Moses, his brother Aaron, and his sister Miriam. Moses functioned as mediator, Aaron as high priest, and Miriam served as a prophetess. (6:4; Exodus 15:20; 28:1-3; Galatians 3:19)

Next, through Micah, YHWH called upon his people Israel to “remember” or to bring to mind developments that occurred after the deliverance from Egypt and at the end of the period of wandering in the wilderness. Moabite king Balak “counseled” or formulated a plan to have the diviner Balaam, the son of Beor, come to Moab for the purpose of cursing the Israelites so that he might be able to defeat them and chase them out of the land. After the Greek word for “counseled,” the Septuagint adds, “against you,” meaning against God’s people Israel. (6:5; Numbers 22:4-6)

Balak sent a delegation of elders to Balaam along with payment for his services. Based on a revelation he received, Balaam told the elders that YHWH did not permit him to go with them. (Numbers 22:9-14) Balak then sent a more numerous and more prominent delegation to convey the message that Balak would greatly honor Balaam if he would accompany them and follow through on cursing the Israelites. After receiving another revelation that made it clear to him that he could go with them but could only speak what YHWH directed him to say, Balaam left with the delegation. (Numbers 22:15-21) Contrary to YHWH’s will respecting his people, Balaam departed with the intent of receiving a great reward for cursing the Israelites. Despite what he desired, he failed in his efforts to curse them and instead pronounced prophetic blessings regarding them. When Balak strongly objected to what he had done, Balaam answered that he could only speak or do what YHWH wanted. (6:5; Numbers 23:3-24:10; 2 Peter 2:15)

At that time, the Israelites were encamped east of the Jordan River on the plains of Moab, where the site of Shittim was located. The Hebrew plural noun shittím designates “acacia trees.” In part, this explains why the Septuagint does not render Shittim as a place name but contains a plural form of the word schoinos, meaning “reed.” Gilgal (Galgal [LXX]) was a location west of the Jordan River near the city of Jericho, where the Israelites encamped after crossing the Jordan, where all the uncircumcised males were circumcised, and where the people observed the first Passover after entering the land of Canaan. (6:5; Joshua 5:2-12)

Accordingly, for the Israelites to remember what happened “from Shittim to Gilgal” would have included their recalling that YHWH frustrated Balak’s plan to have the Israelites cursed, made Balaam bless his people instead, enabled them to defeat the Midianites who had shared with the Moabites (in keeping with Balaam’s later advice) to get many Israelite men to participate in idolatry and associated sexual immorality, and caused a blockage of the flooded Jordan River to allow the Israelites to make a safe crossing into the land of Canaan. (Numbers 22:4-25:8; 31:3-11, 15, 16; Joshua 3:1, 14-17) Their recalling these developments would have served to make the Israelites “know” or recognize the “righteous [deeds]” or “righteousness” (LXX) of YHWH, for he had dealt with them in keeping with his promises to them and thus demonstrated himself to be the “Righteous One” who merited absolute trust. (6:5)

In view of all that YHWH had done for his people, they had reason to consider what he required of them. The words of the prophet’s questions are phrased in the first person singular, being directed to the Israelites as individuals. “With what shall I come before YHWH, shall I bow myself to God on high? Shall I come before him with holocausts , with year-old calves [literally, with calves, sons of a year]?” The sacrificial arrangement was part of the law that YHWH gave to the Israelites at Mount Sinai, but the question the Israelites individually were to consider was whether the mere act of bringing a sacrifice made them acceptable to him. The opening question in the Septuagint reads, “With what shall I take hold of the Lord, lay hold of my God, the Most High?” According to this rendering, the question for an Israelite to consider related to what he would need to do to enjoy a close personal relationship with YHWH as his God. (6:6)

The prophet raised still other questions pertaining to the quantity of the sacrifices being offered or to the exceptionally high value of the sacrifices. Would YHWH be pleased “with thousands of rams, with ten thousand rivers of oil” (or oil of such great quantity as to be likened to thousands of streams of flowing olive oil)? For a family man, a firstborn son would have been very precious to him. Among surrounding nations and even unfaithful Israelites, the abominable practice of child sacrifice existed. The question was whether this ultimate sacrifice of a firstborn son is what YHWH required an Israelite to make for his sin. The answer that follows made it unmistakably clear that what counted with him was not a huge quantity of sacrifices nor was the offering up of a firstborn son, the “fruit of [his] belly” or the offspring of his own body, acceptable to YHWH for the “sin” of an Israelite’s “soul” or for the individual’s own transgression. An acceptable standing before YHWH could not be attained by greatly heightening the degree of the external forms of worship. He looked for devotion that reflected a deep love for him and his commands. (6:7)

Micah next provided the answer that the Israelites should have known. They had not been left in the dark as to what YHWH required of them, for they had been given his commands. Therefore, individually, it could be said to any Israelite, any “man” or earthling (adhám), that he had been told what is “good” or acceptable to YHWH. By means of a question, the prophet pointed out that what YHWH was seeking from the individual was that he practice justice, and “love kindness [chésed],” and be “humble” or “modest” in “walking with his God.” (6:8)

Practicing justice called for doing what was right, equitable, or impartial when dealing with others. The Hebrew word chésed signifies graciousness, enduring loyalty, steadfast love, and mercy. It is a compassionate care and loving concern that expresses itself in action. In the Septuagint, chésed is here translated éleos, meaning “mercy,” “pity,” or “compassion.” To love kindness or mercy would mean to find delight in being kind or compassionate. A person who is humble or modest in walking with God would be conducting himself as an individual who is submissive to his commands. He would earnestly seek to live his entire life in a way that harmonized with God’s will. According to the Septuagint rendering, the individual would be ready or willing to walk with God, conducting himself in conformity to his ways. (6:8)

To warn the lawless Israelites regarding the coming punitive judgment, YHWH’s “voice,” through his prophet, calls out to the “city,” probably the city of Jerusalem. In the Septuagint, the word for “call upon” (epikaléo) is a passive verb in the future tense. Therefore, the opening phrase may be translated, “The voice of the Lord will be called upon for the city” or “in the city.” This could suggest that the people would appeal to YHWH to express his will respecting the city, delivering it from being conquered. (6:9)

Possibly the reference to “prudence” (tushiyyáh) as seeing God’s name indicates that wise Israelites would “see,” recognize, or have regard for YHWH, the one whom the name represents, and would, therefore, heed the message conveyed through his prophet. According to the rendering of the Septuagint, God “will deliver those fearing his name.” Those having a wholesome “fear” of God’s name would be persons who had proper regard for him and demonstrated this by living in harmony with his commands. A number of modern translations incorporate part of the wording of the Septuagint in their renderings. “And to fear your name is wisdom.” (NIV) “It is wisdom to fear your name!” (NAB) “The fear of his name brings success [translated according to another possible meaning of the Hebrew word tushiyyáh].” (REB) It would be wise or prudent to fear God’s name or to have reverential regard for the bearer of the name. This is because having his approval would mean being in a position to enjoy his guidance, care, and blessing. (6:9)

The phrase that starts with the imperative to “hear” (a plural verb in the Hebrew text) relates either to a “tribe” or to a “rod,” for the Hebrew noun mattéh can have either meaning. The text of the Septuagint may be rendered, “Hear, O tribe, and who will rule [kosméo] the city?” This tribe could be that of Judah or could be a designation for the Israelites residing in the territory of the kingdom of Judah. One possible meaning for the Greek word kosméo is “rule,” but this verb basically means to “adorn” or to “set in order.” The Septuagint rendering may be understood to imply that the city of Jerusalem would be conquered, giving rise to the question as to who would rule it or who would set it in order, rebuilding it, after its desolation. (6:9)

Translators, when using “rod” to render the Hebrew word mattéh, represent it as though it were speaking. “Pay attention to the rod.” (HCSB) “Hear the rod.” (NIV) The “rod” could be understood to be the instrument YHWH would use to punish his disobedient people. For the Israelites to “hear” the rod could signify that they should listen to the message regarding the threatened punishment as proclaimed by YHWH’s prophet. They should listen to YHWH, the one doing the appointing. From a grammatical standpoint, the object of the appointing would not be the “tribe” or the “rod.” This is because the Hebrew noun mattéh is masculine gender, but the suffix indicating the object of the appointing is feminine gender. In view of the earlier mention of YHWH’s voice, possibly the implied object is the “rebuke” or punishment that he had decreed. The Hebrew word for “rebuke” or “punishment” (tohkhecháh) is feminine gender. This would mean that the people were to listen to YHWH, the One who had appointed the punishment for their unfaithfulness to him. The New Century Version conveys a similar interpretive significance. “So pay attention to the rod of punishment; pay attention to the One who threatens to punish.” (6:9)

The questions that are raised in the verses that follow reveal why the people in the kingdom of Judah should have expected YHWH’s punitive judgment to be expressed against them. Were there still “treasures of wickedness” in the “house of the wicked one”? “Treasures of wickedness” would be riches accumulated by fraudulent and oppressive means. As the question implied, such riches were in the house of corrupt Israelites who disregarded God’s commands and trampled on the rights of others, especially on those of disadvantaged ones in their midst. The question about an “ephah of scantness” relates to fraud. An ephah was a dry measure equaling about 20 dry quarts (22 liters). In the “house of the wicked one,” there would be a container or containers that held less than the standard quantity and could be used to cheat those who purchased grain or other commodities. The scant ephah measure was “accursed,” for it served a fraudulent purpose. (6:10)

A literal rendering of the Septuagint is, “Not fire, and the house of the lawless one treasures up treasures of lawless [acts], and with arrogance of injustice?” Possibly this could be understood to mean that the lawless one, by his corrupt practices, was storing up a destructive fire against himself. His house was filled with riches obtained through lawless deeds that he had arrogantly carried out despite their being unjust. (6:10)

The implied answer regarding “scales of wickedness” and a “bag of stones of deceit” would be that no one could be “pure” before YHWH who made use of such. “Scales of wickedness” designate scales that were rigged to defraud others, and “stones of deceit” could be stones weighing either more or less than standard weights and would be used to cheat both buyers and sellers. According to the Septuagint rendering, the question is whether the “lawless one” would be “justified” by “[rigged] scales” and a “bag of deceitful weights.” (6:11)

The Hebrew words rendered “rich men” and “inhabitants” have a feminine suffix that probably refers to Jerusalem (“her rich men”; “her inhabitants”). Her rich men are described as being “full of violence,” suggesting that they oppressed others in a cruel and ruthless manner and resorted to violent acts to attain their base objectives. Inhabitants of Jerusalem could not be trusted, for they spoke “deception.” The tongue “in their mouth” was deceitful. It was used to express lies to deceive others. (6:12)

The Septuagint rendering indicates that the lawless ones, with fraudulent scales and weights, accumulated “riches of impiety,” treasures that dishonored God because they had been acquired through dishonesty. Besides speaking lies, the tongue of “her” (Jerusalem’s) inhabitants was “exalted” or arrogant “in their mouth.” (6:12)

On account of the transgressions of the people, YHWH would make them sick or severely wound them when “striking” them. He would cause them to experience desolation “because of [their] sins.” According to the Septuagint, he would start to strike them and would destroy them for their transgressions. Both in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint, the words are expressed in the second person singular (“you” or “your”) with apparent reference to the people. (6:13)

Without YHWH’s care and protection, the people would suffer. Although they would eat, they would not have enough food to satisfy their hunger. There is uncertainty about the meaning of the next punishment mentioned in the Hebrew text. A literal rendering could be, “And your emptiness [yéshach] [will be] in your midst, and you will move away and you will not escape.” The meaning “emptiness” for yéshach is a conjectural lexical definition. Other suggested meanings are “dirt” and “filth.” The Hebrew word for “move away” (sug) could be translated “remove” (as when carrying away items or taking them to a secure place), and the Hebrew word for “escape” [palát] could be rendered “save.” Interpretive renderings of translations vary considerably. “Your stomach will still be empty. You will store up but save nothing.” (NIV) “There shall be hunger within you; you shall put away, but not preserve.” (ESV) “Your stomachs will still be empty. You will try to save what you can. But you will not be able to.” (NIRV) “Your food will lie heavy in your stomach; you will come to labour, but not bring forth.” (REB) “And there is a gnawing at your vitals; you have been conceiving without bearing young.” (Tanakh) The Septuagint rendering suggests that it would “become dark” among the people or that they would experience a time of great gloom. Although there would be a turning away, the people would not escape. (6:14)

Whatever the people might “save” or “remove” to a secure place, YHWH would “give to the sword.” The invaders of the kingdom of Judah whom he would use to punish his lawless people would seize everything. According to the Septuagint rendering, the ones among the people who might initially escape would be “delivered over to the sword.” (6:14)

Without YHWH’s blessing, the people would have meager or virtually no returns from their agricultural labor. They would sow seed but would not reap, losing crops either on account of pests or enemy invasions. Although treading or pressing olives, they would not have enough oil with which to anoint themselves. As for “sweet wine” from a new crop of grapes, they would have no wine to drink. The Septuagint adds that the ordinances of God’s people would be abolished. (6:15)

Observing the “statutes of Omri” and “all the work of the house of Ahab” denotes pursuing a course of great lawlessness, including involvement in abominable idolatrous practices. (6:16)

Omri served as a military commander during the reign of Israelite king Elah. After Zimri assassinated Elah, the son of Baasha, and seized the throne, the military force under the command of Omri chose him as their king and launched an attack on Tirzah, where Zimri had established his royal residence. After Tirzah was captured, Zimri committed suicide by burning down his residence over himself. Another rival for the kingship, Tibni, gained considerable backing, but the supporters of Omri proved to be stronger. After the death of Tibni, Omri became the undisputed monarch in the kingdom of Israel. He proved to be more corrupt than all his predecessors, perpetuating the idolatrous calf worship that Jeroboam (the first monarch of the kingdom of Israel) had established, and building up a record of unparalleled wickedness during the course of his reign. (1 Kings 16:8-26)

Ahab, the son of Omri, made himself guilty of even greater transgressions of YHWH’s commands. He formed a marriage alliance with Ethbaal the king of Sidon. As a consequence of Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, Baal worship, with active royal support, came to be practiced on a large scale throughout the kingdom of Israel. Jezebel used her royal authority to suppress the worship of YHWH and determined to kill all of his prophets. (1 Kings 16:29-33; 18:4; 19:1, 2, 10)

Instead of walking or conducting themselves faithfully according to YHWH’s commands, the people imitated the corrupt ways of Omri and the house of Ahab, which would have included his successors, his wife Jezebel, and their daughter Athaliah who almost succeeded in destroying the royal line of David. (2 Chronicles 22:10-12) On account of their patterning their conduct according to that of those whom he disapproved, YHWH revealed that he would severely punish his people, indicating the result to be, “my making you for a waste and her inhabitants for hissing.” If “her inhabitants” designates the people dwelling in Jerusalem, this would mean that the city would be desolated and that those surviving the destruction of Jerusalem would become an object of ridicule, to be hissed at in mockery. As a devastated city, Jerusalem would bear the reproach or contempt that would then be directed against YHWH’s people (“my people” [in the Hebrew text]). (6:16)

The Septuagint, however, does not say “my people.” It concludes with the words, “And you will receive the insults of peoples.” The Greek verb for “you will receive” (lémpsesthe) is plural, indicating that the reference is to the people in the kingdom of Judah who, after experiencing conquest, the desolation of their land, and the destruction of Jerusalem, would be subjected to reproaches from the peoples of other nations. (6:16)

Micah 7:1-20

Surrounded by moral corruption, Micah was moved to say, “Woe to me!” His expression reveals that he must have been downcast, grieved, and greatly distressed because of seeing no one who wanted to do God’s will. Feeling very much alone among his people, he likened himself to the gatherings of summer fruit, apparently when little remained to be picked, and to a gleaning of grape vines after the major harvest had been completed. When it came to finding godly Israelites, the kingdom of Judah resembled grapevines and trees at the end of the harvest, with no fruit to be found. As Micah expressed matters, there was no “cluster” (’eshkóhl) of grapes “to eat” (’ekóhl [the infinitive form of ’akál]) nor an early fig that his “soul” or he himself desired. (7:1; see the Notes section.)

According to the Septuagint rendering, Micah likened himself to someone who collected “stubble in the harvest” and compared himself to grape gleanings when there would be no cluster of first-ripe grapes to eat. In his state of discouragement, sadness, and distress, he, with reference to himself among a lawless people, again said, “Woe, O my soul.” (7:1)

Micah felt as he did because it appeared to him that the caring, trustworthy, or compassionate man (chasíd) had “perished from the land.” The Hebrew word chasíd is related to chésed, which noun often denotes graciousness, enduring loyalty, steadfast love, and mercy. It is a compassionate care and loving concern that expresses itself in action. In the Septuagint, chasíd is here translated eulabés, describing someone who is reverent, devout, or godly. (7:2)

Among men (adhám [man, earthling (a collective singular)]) or the people of the kingdom of Judah, there appeared to be no upright one or no man who endeavored to live in harmony with God’s commands. All of them would lie “in wait for blood.” To attain their base objectives, they were willing to shed blood. This could have been by depriving others of the necessities of life, actually killing fellow Israelites to seize their possessions, or bringing about the death of innocent persons by presenting false testimony or for receiving a bribe. According to the Septuagint, “All judge [form of dikázo (pass judgment, condemn, plead a case)] for blood,” which seemingly relates to obtaining or handing down verdicts to shed the blood of innocent persons. Everyone among the corrupt people was like a man on the hunt with a net to ensnare a “brother” or fellow Israelite in order to take advantage of him or to cause him injury. The Septuagint does not include a reference to hunting with a net but says that each one “oppresses his fellow with oppression.” (7:2)

The actions of the influential men in the kingdom of Judah were corrupt, for the “hands” are referred to as being “upon bad” and doing it well or thoroughly. According to the Septuagint, “they prepare their hands for bad,” readying themselves to commit evil deeds. Lawlessness existed among the very men who should have been administering justice. “The prince” or ruler among the people would “ask.” This may refer to making a request or demand for having an unjust decision rendered. It is also possible that, as a number of translations have interpretively rendered it, the ruler or official demands a bribe. “Rulers ask for money, and judges’ decisions are bought for a price.” (NCV) “The official and the judge demand a bribe.” (HCSB) “Officials and judges ask for bribes.” (GNT, Second Edition) To comply with a request for a corrupt decision, the one judging would do so for a bribe. The Septuagint says that the judge would speak “peaceable words,” declaring the verdict that complied with an influential man’s request. As for the “great one” or the prominent individual, he would speak the “desire of his soul,” stating what he wanted done. In their corrupt dealings, the influential ones among the people would cooperate to carry out oppression and injustices, as if working together to “weave” something. (7:3)

The last two words of verse 3 in the Septuagint (kaí exeloumai [“and I will remove”]) begin a thought that is completed in the next verse. “And I will remove their good things like a moth devouring …” In expression of his judgment against the lawless ones, God would take away their possessions, allowing a human agency to act against them. The removal of the “good things” would be comparable to the way in which a clothes moth in the larval stage consumes fabric or like a woodworm destroys wood as it bores into it. (7:3)

Moral decay among the people in the kingdom of Judah had sunk to such a low level that the “best” (good one) of them proved to be like a brier, the thorns of which could rip one’s garment or tear into one’s flesh. The “most upright one” would be more troublesome than a “thorn hedge” that could tear clothing or do injury to anyone who might get too close to it. Accordingly, nothing good could then be expected from any member of Israelite society. The best and most upright among them demonstrated themselves to be injurious. (7:4)

YHWH’s prophets functioned as watchmen among the people, warning them about coming calamity if they did not repent and abandon their lawless ways. (Jeremiah 6:17; Ezekiel 33:7) The “day of [these] watchmen” would be the time when the message they proclaimed was fulfilled. It would then be when the “visitation” of, or the giving of attention to, the people would come. That would spell confounding or perplexity for them, as the people would not escape the punitive judgment that would be expressed against them. (7:4; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering.)

The moral breakdown existing among the people had a corrupting effect on close friends and relatives. Neither a “companion” nor a close “friend” could be trusted, for all were determined to act in what they perceived to be their own interests without regard for the effect on others. A man could not even have confidence in his wife, the one so close to him as to be designated as the one “lying in [his] bosom” or, according to the Septuagint, as his “bedmate.” With reference to her, he, to avoid bringing trouble on himself, needed to guard the “doorways of [his] mouth,” or the expressions that passed his lips. The Septuagint indicates that he should be on guard about communicating anything to his wife. (7:5; see the Notes section.)

A son would treat his father with contempt or would “dishonor” (LXX) him, as if his own father were a senseless person. A daughter would rise up against her mother, a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law. A man would find the “men of his house” to be his “enemies,” persons working against his interests and well-being. (7:6)

Faced with this distressing situation among his own people, Micah would look to YHWH to render judgment, bringing an end to the lawlessness and those who were determined to continue with their corrupt practices. He would patiently wait for YHWH, the “God of [his] salvation” (“my savior” [LXX]) or the God who would bring about his deliverance from the unfavorable circumstances. Micah was confident that YHWH his God would hear his prayers for relief. (7:7)

It appears that Micah represented Jerusalem as a woman. She tells her woman enemy not to rejoice over her in her calamitous state, for she would arise from her fall. Although coming to sit “in the darkness,” YHWH would be a “light” to her. He would deliver her from her distress or make it possible for her to be restored, ending the darkness that descended upon her at the time of her calamity. In the fulfillment, the woman enemy proved to be Babylon, for the Babylonians under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem. The time of desolation ended after Babylon fell to the forces of the Persian monarch Cyrus and he permitted Israelite exiles to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the temple there. (7:8)

As representing the people of the kingdom of Judah, Jerusalem is portrayed as speaking of herself as having to bear the wrath of YHWH because she had sinned against him. His anger would continue until such time as he would plead her case and execute judgment for her. This development relates to the time when he would act against her woman enemy, Babylon, repaying her for the suffering that she had inflicted on his people and setting his own people free from exile. With reference to that time, Jerusalem is depicted as confidently saying that YHWH would bring her out “to the light” and that she would “look upon his righteousness.” The darkness associated with the desolation of the land and the capital city Jerusalem and the exile of the people would end. YHWH’s righteousness would be revealed upon his rendering a just decision for Jerusalem and against her woman enemy and his proving true to his word of promise respecting his people. (7:9)

The enemy, Lady Babylon, would see that YHWH had turned his favorable attention to Lady Jerusalem, executing his judgment for her by liberating his people from exile through the agency he had designated for this purpose. Shame would cover Lady Babylon who had mocked Lady Jerusalem with the question, “Where is YHWH your God?” This question implied that YHWH could not help his people from being conquered and taken into exile. There would be a dramatic reversal in the fortunes of Lady Jerusalem and Lady Babylon. Lady Jerusalem would see with her own eyes the conquest of Lady Babylon, resulting in humiliation that would be comparable to her being trampled upon “like mud of the streets.” (7:10; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering of the last part of this verse.)

In the day or the time after Lady Babylon would experience ruin, the walls of Jerusalem would be rebuilt. The last Hebrew word in the concluding sentence of verse 11 (choq, which commonly means “decree”) appears to designate a prescribed limit or boundary. At the time of the restoration of the people to Jerusalem and their land, a boundary would “be distant.” This suggests that this restoration would not be restricted to a previously set boundary. (7:11)

The Septuagint rendering appears to relate the developments to Lady Babylon. Her day is equated with her obliteration and with a “rubbing out” of her statutes. Babylon would be destroyed and her laws would cease to apply, for Babylon and the entire area over which the Babylonian monarch ruled would become subject to the laws of the conqueror. (7:11)

According to the Masoretic Text, “that day,” if designating the time of restoration, would be when the exiles would return to Jerusalem from all the areas where they had been dispersed — from Asshur (from the entire territory that had come under the control of Assyria) and the cities of Mizraim (Egypt) and from Mizraim or all the regions of Egypt, and to the “river,” probably the Euphrates and all the region extending to it, and the sea, likely the Mediterranean, and “from sea and mountain of the mountain.” The words “from sea and mountain of the mountain” may mean from everywhere besides the territory of Assyria and the land of Egypt. It is also possible that the reference in this verse is to people of all nations coming to Jerusalem for worship as described in chapter 4, verse 2 (which see for comments) (7:12)

Another interpretation of these words changes the meaning to conquest, not restoration. This is based on taking verse 11 to mean that the day for rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem would be in the distant future and that then was the time that invaders would be coming to Jerusalem. “A day for mending your walls — that is a far-off day. [7:11] This is rather a day when to you [tramplers] will come streaming from Assyria and the towns of Egypt — from [every land from] Egypt to the Euphrates, from sea to sea and from mountain to mountain.” (7:12, Tanakh)

According to the punctuation of Rahlfs’ printed Greek text, the first words of verse 12 (“[in] that day”) complete the phrase at the end of verse 11 about the rejection of laws. With seeming reference to Babylon, the Septuagint continues, “And your cities will be leveled and [will be] for a division to the Assyrians, and your fortified cities [will be] for a division from Tyre to the river of Syria [the Euphrates] — a day of water and tumult.” This pointed to the time Babylon would be conquered and the land under the control of the Babylonians would be divided by those who shared in the conquest. It would then be a day of “water” or a destructive flood, and it would be a time of tumult or confusion among the people who would be facing calamity. (7:12)

The “earth” or land that is designated “for desolation” appears to be land other than that of YHWH’s people. This desolation would result because those inhabiting the land had conducted themselves contrary to God’s ways. The “fruits of their deeds” or their actions proved to be corrupt and brought suffering and misery to others. (7:13)

According to the Septuagint, the “earth” or land “with those residing in it” would be destroyed “for the fruit of their deeds.” The people would experience the consequences from their corrupt and hurtful dealings. (7:13)

YHWH was being petitioned to “shepherd” his people with his “rod,” providing for them and protecting them as does a shepherd the flock under his care. As “sheep of his inheritance,” they belonged to him and, therefore, would be the object of his special concern and attention. (7:14)

At the time the prophetic word applied, the circumstances of the people do not appear to have been favorable. They are portrayed as “dwelling alone in a forest in the midst of an orchard [karmél].” A “forest” or a “thicket” would not have been a suitable place for sheep to find pasturage. So the circumstances alluded to could be those of the returned exiles when people in the surrounding lands fared better. By comparison, the situation of the exiles was as though they were in a thicket, whereas the surrounding nations resided in an orchard or on a productive field. The plea directed to YHWH may be understood to be an appeal for him to let them feed like sheep or allow them to do so in Bashan and Gilead, regions east of the Jordan that were noted for good pasture land. Therefore, the petition seems to be a request for YHWH to change the fortunes of his people, making it possible for them to return to and then to flourish in their own land as they had in “days of long ago.” (7:14; see the Notes section.)

In response to the appeal, YHWH promised to let the exiles see marvels or astonishing things as did the Israelites upon leaving Egypt as a free people. These astounding things of the past would have included the parting of the Red Sea to allow the Israelites to cross, and the destruction of the pursuing Egyptian host when the water came rushing back into the miraculously opened passageway, and the manner in which they were cared for in the wilderness with water and food in the form of manna. In the case of the returning exiles, the marvels they experienced included their being able to make the hazardous journey back to their land with YHWH’s manifest aid and protection. Then, with his blessing and safeguarding, the returned exiles, despite intense enemy opposition and interference, were able to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple. (7:15; see the Notes section.)

In the verses that follow, God’s people are represented as being triumphant, whereas people of the other nations would come to be in fear and be motivated to come to YHWH their God. The victories of the Jewish forces under the leadership of the Maccabees in the second century BCE do not seem to fit the lofty prophetic language. Therefore, it appears that the marvels YHWH would show to his people ultimately relate to the amazing things he would do for the true Israel, those whom he recognized as his own upon their putting faith in Jesus, his Son, and the surrender of his life for them. In their case, the wonderful things that God showed them included their being forgiven of their sins, being constituted his approved children, and coming to enjoy his safeguarding and guidance. (7:15)

Upon seeing the astonishing things that YHWH does for those whom he recognizes as his own, the people of other nations would be “ashamed of all their might” or “ashamed in spite of all their strength.” Their efforts to fight against God’s people would prove to be in vain, demonstrating that all their power was ineffectual. This failure would be the reason for their being ashamed of their strength or despite “all their might.” As Jesus had promised to his disciples, no power of the enemy would be able to harm them. (Luke 10:19) Though seemingly defenseless and subjected to fierce assaults or persecution, the true Israel consisting of Jesus’ devoted followers has not been destroyed. (7:16)

Those who come to recognize the survival of the true Israel as a marvel that God has performed for his people appear to be represented as struck with awe and amazement. They would be rendered speechless, putting a “hand [hands (LXX)] upon the [their (LXX)] mouth.” The effect on them would be so overpowering as to make their ears become deaf. (7:16)

People from the various nations would be greatly humbled upon witnessing that nothing can succeed against God’s devoted people. They would be brought low like a serpent that appears to lick the dust when repeatedly sticking out its tongue. In their humbled state they would be like frightened snakes, reptiles or creeping things of the “earth” or ground coming out of their “enclosures” or hiding places. According to the Hebrew text, they would come “before YHWH,” the God of his people, leaving their “enclosures,” fastnesses, or fortresses — locations where they imagined themselves to be secure. This suggests that, based on the evidence that YHWH was with his people, they, as humbled persons, would turn to him as their God. The words that follow (“they will be in dread and in fear because of you”) may mean that those who come to YHWH would be in awe of and have a reverential fear of him as their God. It is also possible that “because of you” could indicate that people of the nations would come to have “fear” or high respect for God’s people upon perceiving what he has done for them. (7:17)

Based on a different punctuation of the Hebrew text, numerous translations render the text in other ways. “They shall lick dust like a snake, like the crawling things of the earth; they shall come trembling out of their fortresses; they shall turn in dread to the LORD our God, and they shall stand in fear of you.” (NRSV) “May they lick the dust like snakes, like creatures that crawl on the ground. Let them come trembling from their strongholds to the LORD our God; let them approach with awe and fear.” (REB) “They shall lick the dust like the serpent, like reptiles on the ground; they shall come quaking from their fastnesses, trembling in fear of you [the LORD, our God].” (NAB) (7:17)

According to the Septuagint, people of the nations would “lick dust like serpents crawling on the ground.” They would be “confounded” in their hiding place or come to be in a state of fright in their seeming safe location. The people of the nations would be beside themselves because of the God of his people or be amazed at him on account of what he has done for those who are his own. The Septuagint concludes the verse with the words, “and they will be afraid of you.” This fear could either mean a reverential regard for God or a respect for his people. (7:17)

At this point, the subject changes, identifying YHWH as the God who has compassion for his people. By means of a question, YHWH is revealed as the God without equal, “forgiving iniquity and passing over the transgression [taking away injustices and passing over impieties (LXX)] of the remnant of his inheritance.” The “remnant of his inheritance” would be the repentant ones of his people whom he recognizes as his own possession. While he may express his wrath against those who prove unfaithful to him, he does not persist in anger for limitless time to come, “for he delights in compassion [chésed].” According to the Septuagint rendering, he did not hold fast to his wrath “for a testimony.” He did not keep a permanent record about the reason for his anger so as to express it again. Instead of being an angry God, YHWH wants to be compassionate, desiring that individuals abandon their wrong course and become recipients of his forgiveness. The Hebrew word chésed may be defined as graciousness, enduring loyalty, steadfast love, and mercy. It is a compassionate care and loving concern that expresses itself in action. In the Septuagint, chésed is here translated éleos, meaning “mercy,” “pity,” or “compassion.” (7:18)

Despite the serious wrongs that he had seen among the Israelites, Micah was confident that, in time, YHWH would turn his favorable attention to his people and have compassion on them. His forgiveness of his repentant people would be complete. It would prove to be as if he had subdued or trampled upon their iniquities and “cast into the depths of the sea all of [their] sins,” causing the record of their wrongs to be thoroughly eradicated. (7:19)

Though his people had repeatedly sinned, YHWH would not fail in fulfilling the promises that he had made to their forefathers Abraham and Jacob. His giving “truth to Jacob” may mean that he would demonstrate his faithfulness to the repentant descendants of Jacob, bestowing on them all the blessings that were promised to their forefather. YHWH’s giving “compassion” (chésed) to Abraham revealed that he would reveal himself to be compassionate, kind, gracious, loyal, and loving to his repentant descendants. Centuries before Micah began his prophetic service (“in former days” [LXX]), YHWH had backed his word of promise to the forefathers of the Israelites with his oath, swearing by himself as he could not take an oath by anyone greater than himself. This assured that everything he had promised, regardless of what the descendants of Abraham and Jacob might do throughout the centuries, would unerringly be fulfilled. (7:20; Hebrews 6:13-18)

Notes

In verse 1, there is an apparent play on the Hebrew noun ’eshkóhl (cluster) with the infinitive ’ekóhl (to eat).

For verse 4, the Septuagint rendering bears little resemblance to the extant Hebrew text. When including the last two words of verse 3 (which see for comments on this verse and the initial part of verse 4), one way the words of the Septuagint may be literally translated is, “And I will remove their good things, like a moth devouring and moving by measure, in a day of watching. Woe, woe, your judgments have come. Now will be their laments.” The phrase “moving” or “going by measure” (badízon epí kanónos [the genitive form of kanón]) is obscure. This phrase could also be rendered “moving on a rod,” for the word kanón can apply to a literal rod or to a rule, a measure, or a standard. “Going by measure” could be understood to mean that the larva progressively moves onward as it chews away on the material. If the reference is to a rod, the Greek word for “moth” (sés) could apply to a woodworm as it moves on a rod or piece of wood. A “day of watching” would be YHWH’s day or time for giving attention to his lawless people, having his punitive judgments expressed against them. With the judgments having come upon them, they would experience woe or calamity, and this would occasion their lamenting.

In verse 5, after the word that may be rendered “companion,” a Hebrew scroll (MurXII) thought to date from the first century CE includes the conjunction “and,” as does the Septuagint. The initial part of this verse in the Septuagint may be rendered, “Trust not in friends, and set not your hope on rulers.”

The Septuagint rendering for verse 10 concludes the last sentence with words in verse 11. “Now she [Lady Babylon] will become [something] trodden down like clay in the streets in the day of plastering bricks.” This could mean that she would be trampled down in defeat, as though reduced to a consistency comparable to a substance used for plastering.

In verse 14, the Septuagint renders the Hebrew word karmél as a proper noun (Carmel). Although referring to the people as tenting by themselves in a forest “in the midst of Carmel,” the Septuagint says that “they will feed in Bashan [Basanitis] and Gilead [Galaaditis] as in the days of old.”

In verse 15, the Masoretic Text, with apparent reference to what YHWH would do for Israel, says, “I will show him marvels.” The Septuagint rendering is, “You will see marvels.”