The opening verse identifies Nahum, whose name means “comfort” or “consolation,” as being “the Elkoshite” or a man from the town of Elkosh. There is uncertainty about where Elkosh may have been located. One conjecture places it about 3.5 miles (c. 6 kilometers) northeast of Lachish. When Nahum made known the word of YHWH regarding the judgment to befall Nineveh, the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel no longer existed. The Assyrian forces had captured the capital Samaria, the Israelite survivors of the military campaign had been taken into exile, and the Assyrians had brought in peoples from other nations to reside in the conquered Israelite territory. Therefore, one may reasonably conclude that Elkosh was a town in the kingdom of Judah, for that kingdom continued to exist long after the fall of Samaria.
Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, is portrayed in the book of Nahum as a bloodguilty city that merited severe judgment. The kingdom of Judah had experienced the brutality of the Assyrian forces when they invaded during the reign of King Hezekiah. According to the “Prism of Sennacherib,” this monarch laid siege to and conquered “46 strong cities, walled forts,” and many “small villages in their vicinity” and, along with countless horses, mules, donkeys, camels, cattle, sheep, and goats, led “200,150” survivors into exile. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts [ANET], Third Edition, edited by James B. Pritchard, page 288) According to the biblical account, King Sennacherib captured all the fortified cities of Judah during Hezekiah’s reign, but divine intervention stopped him from seizing Jerusalem. (2 Kings 18:13; 19:35, 36) Reliefs on stone panels from the Sennacherib’s palace in Nineveh depict the siege of Lachish, one of the fortified cities of Judah. The cruelty of the Assyrian military is clearly in evidence. Captured city defenders are portrayed as being tortured, impaled, and flayed alive. (For pictures and comments about the site of ancient Lachish, see Lachish and for pictures of the Assyrian reliefs of the siege of Lachish, see reliefs.)
At the time Nahum prophesied in the seventh century BCE, the Egyptian city of No-amon (Thebes) had already fallen before the Assyrian forces under the command of Ashurbanipal, the grandson of Sennacherib. (Nahum 3:8) According to his annals, Ashurbanipal, in his second campaign against Egypt, conquered Thebes and carried away abundant booty — “silver, gold, precious stones,” “linen garments with multicolored trimmings,” “fine horses,” and all the “personal possessions” of URdamane who had left Memphis to find safety in Thebes but then had fled to Kipkipi. Ashurbanipal also “pulled two high obelisks” out of their bases at the door of a temple and took them to Assyria. Based on the description, these obelisks, weighing “2,500 talents,” were covered with a bright gold-copper alloy. (ANET, page 295, including footnotes) The reference to the Assyrian conquest of Thebes establishes that Nahum began his service as a prophet after this event and before Nineveh fell before the forces of the Babylonian monarch Nabopolassar and of Cyaxares the Mede in the fourteenth year of Nabopolassar’s reign. When Nineveh was conquered, Josiah, the great-grandson of Hezekiah, ruled over the kingdom of Judah.
The preserved written record is designated as a “pronouncement” (massá’) relating to Nineveh, either meaning a message concerning or against the Assyrian capital. In the Septuagint, massá’ is rendered lémma, which word basically denotes “something that is received” and so may be understood to mean a “received message.” The Vulgate rendering for massá’ is onus (“load” or “burden”). Renderings found in modern translations include “burden,” “oracle,” “word,” “message,” “prophecy,” and “pronouncement.” (1:1)
In the parallel expression, the account is identified as being the “vision of Nahum the Elkoshite.” Possibly while he was in a trance or dreaming, the divinely revealed message was impressed on his mind. Historical references in the book indicate that Nahum lived in the seventh century BCE. The designation “Elkoshite” probably indicates that he resided in Elkosh, a town in Judah that can no longer be positively identified with any known site. Aside from his name, nothing else is known about him. As a prophet, Nahum lived up to his name (“comfort” or “consolation”), for it must have been a source of comfort for the Israelites to know that the great suffering the Assyrians had caused would come to an end. (1:1; see the introduction for additional information.)
YHWH is revealed as a “jealous [qannóh’] and avenging God.” The Hebrew adjective qannóh’ may here denote that YHWH, in his dealings with humans, does not tolerate attitudes, words, and deeds that, instead of reflecting love for him, are contrary to his commands. As an avenging God, he will not leave unpunished those who persist in impious ways, acting contrary to the innate sense of right and wrong with which humans are endowed. (1:2; see the Notes section.)
Besides being a God who avenges or meets out the judgment that justice requires, he is an “owner of anger,” which may be understood to mean that he is in full control of the anger that deserves to be expressed against those who make themselves guilty of oppression, injustice, ruthlessness, cruelty, or brutality. According to the Septuagint, he is “avenging with wrath,” indicating that his taking vengeance is an expression of his anger. YHWH’s acts of vengeance are directed against “his enemies,” those who are hostile to him and the way in which humans endowed with moral capacity should act. (1:2)
The participial form of the Hebrew verb natár (“keep”) that appears at the end of the verse with reference to what YHWH does to his enemies probably means that he keeps or reserves his wrath for his enemies. Then, at the proper time, he, in expression of his anger, will punish them as they deserve. The Septuagint says that “he himself removes his enemies.” (1:2)
Unlike humans who may quickly be aroused to anger and to act hastily, YHWH is “slow to anger” (literally, “long of anger”) or patient, providing opportunity for peoples and individuals to repent and to abandon their lawless ways. He is “great in power” and, therefore, always in a position to take the action that justice requires. YHWH will not hold innocent those who should not be held innocent, but he will administer just punishment. (1:3)
Humans cannot control fierce winds and are at the mercy of powerful storms. As the one “great in power,” YHWH can control the winds. Accordingly, it is here said that “his way” is “in whirlwind and in storm.” The Septuagint rendering is, “In culmination and earthquake [is] his way.” Possibly, “end” or “culmination” relates to the reality that God always brings what he has purposed to a successful conclusion. Like storms, earthquakes are likewise within God’s power to control or to use for his purpose. (1:3)
YHWH is poetically represented as walking above the celestial dome. Therefore, the clouds are referred to as being the “dust of his feet” or the dust his moving feet stir up. (1:3)
YHWH’s rebuking of the sea so that it dries up probably alludes to what happened at the Red Sea. A passageway opened up, allowing the Israelites to escape from the pursuing Egyptians. YHWH’s making rivers run dry occurred when the Israelites were about to enter the land of Canaan west of the Jordan River. At the time, the Jordan was at flood stage, but a blockage to the north of where the Israelites were encamped stopped the flow of the river, allowing them to cross safely to the other side. (1:4)
The region of Bashan located east of the Jordan River was known for good pasture land. On the slopes of the Carmel Range, olive trees, grapevines, and other plants and vegetation flourished. Lebanon was known for its lush vegetation and magnificent cedars. The withering of Bashan and Carmel, and the drying up of the “blossoms,” flowers, or green forests of Lebanon would doubtless be on account of severe droughts. As the Israelites regarded YHWH as providing the rain, they also ascribed droughts to him. (1:4)
On account of YHWH or because of the action he takes, “mountains quake,” as did Mount Sinai at the time he gave the law to the Israelites encamped there. The melting of the hills probably describes what can happen to hillsides and mountain slopes during heavy rainstorms. The resulting mudslides make it appear as though the hills and mountains are melting. (1:5)
Because of YHWH’s face, or his turning his attention to the earth or the land and the people residing thereon, both the land and its inhabitants are portrayed as being “upheaved.” The upheaving may refer to shaking or trembling like that resulting from seismic activity. Those dwelling on the land would tremble with fear, as YHWH’s giving attention to the land and its inhabitants would be for the purpose of executing his judgment. (1:5)
In view of the matchless power revealed in the way YHWH can effect the natural world, the rhetorical questions are raised as to who can stand before the “face of his indignation” and who can rise up “in the heat of his anger.” Confronted with his wrath, humans are powerless. They cannot prevent YHWH from directing his anger against them and punishing them for their lawlessness. His wrath is “poured out” or expressed as if it were a “fire” that consumes everything in its path. According to the Septuagint, his wrath “melts” sovereignties or reduces them to powerlessness as if dissolving them. On account of the action YHWH takes, rocks are broken, indicating that even crags cannot withstand the force he can direct against them. (1:6)
Those who fully trust YHWH have nothing to fear when he expresses his anger. He is “good,” assuring those whom he recognizes as his own that they will continue to enjoy his blessing, guidance, and safeguarding. In a “day of distress” or “trouble,” he will prove to be a refuge for them. The Septuagint says that he is “kind to those waiting on him in a day of distress.” They would look to him for deliverance in their time of affliction. YHWH knows, or is fully aware of, all those seeking refuge in him (“fearing him” or having reverential regard for him [LXX]). For this reason, not a single one of them would be without his tender care. (1:7)
As for Nineveh, YHWH would make an annihilation of “her place,” doing so as by a flood that passes over the land. The Septuagint refers to his making an end by a rapidly moving inundation to those rising up, apparently doing so against him in defiance. YHWH also would “pursue his enemies [into] darkness,” which may mean that he would cause them to flee into the gloom that denotes the end for them. It is also possible to understand the pursuit to be “with darkness, which would signify that the end for the enemies would be darkness, with no hope of a change in the circumstances. According to the Septuagint, “darkness” would “pursue his enemies,” indicating that they would face only darkness or gloom. (1:8)
The rhetorical question about devising or scheming against YHWH is apparently directed to his enemies, probably more specifically to the Assyrians. Their plotting would fail, for he would bring about annihilation. So complete would the end be that distress for YHWH’s people and others would not arise from that quarter twice or again. There would be no recovery for Nineveh or the Assyrians. According to the Septuagint, YHWH would not take vengeance twice with distress for the same thing. One punitive act of judgment would be sufficient to bring the enemies to their end. (1:9)
The Assyrians are seemingly represented as intertwined or tangled thorns. As such, they appear to be portrayed as a formidable enemy that could inflict serious harm. Because they are also referred to as being drunk from their liquor, the implication may be that they are like thorny plants containing abundant moisture. Nevertheless, they would come to their end as if they were “dry stubble” that a fire quickly consumes. (1:10; regarding the Septuagint rendering, see the Notes section.)
The second person singular (“from you”) referring to the source of the one devising or plotting evil against YHWH may be Nineveh or Assyria. Renderings of various translations are more specific than is the Hebrew text. “From you, Nineveh, has come forth a wicked counsellor.” (REB) “One has gone out from Nineveh, who plots evil against the LORD.” (HCSB) “Assyria, one of your rulers has made evil plans against the LORD.” (CEV) In the Septuagint, the word for “go out” or “come out” is the third person singular form of the verb exérchomai in the future tense, and so the device or plan against God may be understood as coming out of Nineveh or Assyria. The Hebrew text may be rendered as either a past or a future development, with the one going out probably meaning the Assyrian monarch. The scheming may relate to anything that would be contrary to YHWH’s purpose. In the past, Assyrian monarch Sennacherib did such plotting when he wanted to capture Jerusalem and later take the survivors of his military campaign into exile. (1:11)
The monarch, the one “devising evil against YHWH,” is also the one “counseling ruin,” or planning to engage in military campaigns that would cause extensive devastation to the towns, cities, and land that the Assyrians would invade. Somewhat different wording in the Septuagint could be understood to refer to the counseling of “evil things, hostile things” — things that were in opposition to God and hurtful to his people and to the people of other nations. (1:11)
There is uncertainty about the meaning of the initial phrases that are introduced with the words, “Thus said YHWH.” These phrases may be literally translated, “Although complete [shalém] and thus many, even thus they are cut off.” The reference may be to the Assyrians, and the Hebrew adjective shalém, which can mean “complete,” “safe,” or “at peace,” could describe the Assyrians as being in possession of complete or great military strength. Although militarily strong and numerous, the Assyrians would be cut off or suffer defeat. (1:12)
The obscurity of the Hebrew text has given rise to a variety of interpretive renderings. Translators have applied the words to the Assyrians and to the people of Judah in connection with the affliction they had experienced. “Assyria, no matter how strong you are, you are doomed.” (CEV) “Although Assyria is strong and has many people, it will be defeated and brought to an end.” (NCV) “Judah, though your punishment has been great, yet it will pass away and be gone.” (REB) “Even as they [the days of your affliction (footnote)] were full and many, even so are they over and gone.” (Tanakh) (1:12)
The Septuagint rendering bears little resemblance to the extant Hebrew text. It refers to God as ruling over “many waters” and as saying, “And thus they will be commanded, and the report about you will no longer be heard.” The reference appears to be to the Assyrians, and what would be commanded to them or appointed for them could be their end. As a consequence, a “report,” or news, about their military campaigns or triumphs would cease to be heard. (1:12)
YHWH had afflicted his people in the kingdom of Judah, allowing them to suffer greatly from the Assyrians during the course of their military campaigns. The fall of Nineveh would terminate any future threat from the Assyrians. As YHWH had determined upon this punitive judgment, he is the one who would thus no longer afflict his people. (1:12)
Judean king Ahaz had entered into an alliance with Assyria to deal with a threat from the combined forces of the kingdoms of Israel and Syria. As a result, the kingdom of Judah came under the heavy Assyrian yoke, which included having to pay the large tribute that the Assyrian monarch demanded. (2 Kings 16:5-10; 18:13-16) According to the preserved Assyrian annals, both King Hezekiah, the son of Ahaz, and King Manasseh, the grandson of Ahaz, paid tribute. Through his prophet, YHWH promised to break the “bar” of the yoke and to tear apart the confining bonds into which the alliance with Assyria had placed his people. (1:13)
The words “YHWH has commanded concerning you” can apply to YHWH’s expressed judgment against either Assyria or the Assyrian capital Nineveh. This is reflected in the interpretive renderings of translations (“And this is what the LORD says concerning the Assyrians in Nineveh” [NLT]; “This is what the LORD has decreed about the Assyrians” [GNT, Second Edition] “Nineveh, the Lord has given an order concerning you” [NIRV]). The reference to there not again being a “sowing” of the “name” could mean that the fall of Nineveh and, therefore, the end for Assyria as the dominant power in the region signified that Nineveh and the Assyrians would be forgotten or that there would be no descendants to carry on the name. With the end of the Assyrian threat, nothing about the name Nineveh or Assyria would cause terror among the peoples of other nations as it did formerly. (1:14)
Assyrian monarchs credited their victories to their gods. YHWH is represented as decreeing that he would cut off the carved and molten images “from the house of [their (literally, your)] gods.” The fall of Nineveh would prove that the Assyrian deities were powerless. As victorious forces commonly removed the images from the temples of the conquered people, the idols would be cut off from the “house” or temple of even the chief god of the Assyrians — Asshur. (1:14)
From YHWH’s standpoint, Assyria with its capital at Nineveh had proved to be worthless or contemptible. This is on account of the ruthlessness of the Assyrians in their treatment of his people. Therefore, YHWH would make a grave for Assyria, permitting Nineveh to fall and Assyria to come to its end. In the Septuagint, the two concluding words in this verse are hóti tacheis. If these words are translated “that quickly” or “that without delay” with reference to what God would do, the meaning would be that he would act swiftly in making the grave because the end for Nineveh and Assyria was at hand. (1:14)
The introductory “look” draws attention to a new development. Upon the mountains a messenger is depicted as arriving. From those looking up from below, the messenger’s rapidly moving feet would be in their closest field of vision. His feet are the bearers of good news and a message of peace, for the announcement regarding the fall of Nineveh meant that no more would Assyria pose a threat to the kingdom of Judah. Assyrian invasions had interrupted the observance of festivals and the payment of vows at the temple in Jerusalem. Free from any possibility of Assyrian aggression, the people could observe their festivals and pay their vows. (1:15 [2:1])
A literal reading of the concluding portion of the Hebrew text in this verse may be literally translated, “for he will not add again a worthless one to pass through; all of him will be cut off.” This indicates that YHWH would not allow any worthless one as part of an invading force to pass through the land of his people. All of him, or he in his entirety, would be cut off or would perish. In the Septuagint, the words may be rendered, “for by no means will they add any longer to pass through you to [your] growing old. He is finished; he is removed.” No invader would pass through the land clear to the time that the land could be viewed as having reached very advanced age. This is because Assyria would have come to a finish and would have been removed as a power with which the people of the kingdom of Judah had to reckon. (1:15 [2:1]; see the Notes section.)
Notes
Verses 2 through 8 in the Hebrew text are written like an acrostic poem, starting with the letter aleph (A) in verse 2 and ending with the letter kaph (K) in verse 8. A number of the initial letters of the alphabet with which ten poetic lines start are at the beginning of the verse divisions in translations (aleph [A], 1:2; gimel [G], 1:4; he [H], 1:5; teth [T], 1:7; ), but others appear elsewhere (beth [B], middle of verse 3 [the preposition preceding the word rendered “whirlwind”]; waw [W], the conjunction “and” before the word translated “upheaved” in verse 5; zayin [Z], the initial letter of the second noun in verse 6; heth [H (ch)], the initial letter of the word rendered “wrath” [in the middle of verse 6]; yod [Y] the initial letter of the word for “knowing” that follows the conjunction “and” in the last part of verse 7; kaph [K], the initial letter of the third major word in verse 8)]. The letter daleth [D] is missing.
In verse 10, the Septuagint rendering departs significantly from the reading of the extant Hebrew text. The Septuagint starts with the words, “For to their foundation, he will be made barren.” This suggests that the enemy, the Assyrians, would be destroyed like a building that is leveled to its foundation or to the ground. There is no mention of tangled thorns or thorny plants, but the enemy is referred to as being consumed like a twisted “yew” (an evergreen tree or shrub) and like fully dried “stubble.”
In verse 15 (2:1), the rendering “by no means” preserves the emphatic sense of the two words for “not” found in the Septuagint.
The “scatterer” described as having gone up against Nineveh (literally, “against your face”) would be the military force consisting of Babylonians and Medes that was determined to conquer the city, resulting in the scattering of any survivors of the siege who might seek to make their escape in every direction possible. To be ready for the attack, Nineveh’s defenders are called upon to “guard the rampart,” the city’s fortifications or its defenses. They needed to “watch the way” on which the invading force would be advancing in order to be prepared to fight. In this context, to “gird the loins” (to “strengthen the loins” [LXX]) probably means to get ready for battle, and to “make strength exceedingly firm” (to “be exceedingly manly” [LXX]) may be understood to denote to muster up courage and to take whatever steps were needed to mount a defense against the attacking warriors. Nevertheless, the implication is that all these efforts would prove to be in vain. (2:1[2]; for the initial part of the Septuagint reading, see the Notes section.)
The Israelites in the kingdom of Judah had suffered greatly from Assyrian aggression and had thus been humiliated. Through his prophet, YHWH promised to restore the “pride [ga’óhn] of Jacob as the pride [ga’óhn] of Israel.” The Hebrew word ga’óhn can denote “pride,” “eminence,” or “majesty.” In this context, the restoration of this “pride” could mean that the people of Judah would again come to have the dignified standing that their forefather Jacob had enjoyed and which had been the former majesty or eminence of Israel as God’s people. The Septuagint rendering refers to God’s having “turned aside the pride of Jacob” as he did the “pride of Israel.” This could indicate that the pride the people of the kingdom of Judah once enjoyed would be removed from them just as the “pride of Israel” has been taken away when the Assyrians conquered the kingdom of Israel and exiled the surviving Israelites. (2:2[3])
The Hebrew text appears to point to the reason for the restoration of the “pride,” eminence, or majesty. “Those emptying” or laying waste had “emptied them” or laid them waste, and “they have destroyed their branches.” Assyrian assaults had greatly reduced the population in the kingdom of Judah and devastated the land. The kingdom of Judah would have resembled a ruined orchard filled with trees that had their branches broken off. According to the Septuagint, those “shaking” shook off the people [literally, “them”] and “their branches.” These words could also be understood to relate to the destruction and devastation resulting from the Assyrian invasion of the territory of the kingdom of Judah. (2:2[3])
The Hebrew text appears to refer to the military force that would besiege Nineveh, with “his mighty men” possibly designating the warriors of the “scatterer” mentioned in verse 1(2). Each of these warriors is portrayed as having a “reddened shield” and being “dressed in crimson.” The context does not make it possible to determine whether the shields are reddened with dye or from the blood of those slain in battle. Likewise, the attire of the warriors may here be described as dyed scarlet or as having been covered with blood during conflicts. (2:3[4]; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering.)
There is considerable uncertainty about the meaning of the Hebrew text that may be translated literally, “In fire the steel [peladáh] of the chariot in the day of his preparing, and the firs [beróhsh] are made to shake.” On the basis of the Persian word pûlâd, lexicographers have defined the Hebrew word peladáh as meaning “steel.” There are various interpretive renderings of the Hebrew phrase that includes the word peladáh. “Fiery steel are the chariots on the day of his mustering.” (NAB) “The metal on the chariots flashes like fire when they are ready to attack.” (NCV) “The metal of the chariots sparkles as he prepares for battle.” (NJB) “Their chariots in battle line flash like fire.” (REB)
In other contexts, the Hebrew word beróhsh refers to a tree, and suggested meanings in lexicons are “fir” (Latin, abies [a rendering of beróhsh found in the Vulgate]), “cypress” (Greek, kypárissos [a rendering of beróhsh found in the Septuagint]) and “juniper” (based on the Akkadian word burāšu.) The reference to the “firs,” “junipers,” or “cypresses” could be to spear shafts made of wood or to spears or lances. A number of translators have rendered the plural of beróhsh as “spears.” “The cypress spears are brandished.” (ESV) “The spears of pine are brandished.” (NIV) “The spears are brandished.” (HCSB) “Watch as their glittering chariots move into position, with a forest of spears waving above them.” (NLT) (2:3[4])
The chariots could be either those of the attackers or the defenders. It is less likely that the reference is to chariots in Nineveh, as the warriors manning the chariots would have been in the battle before the walls of the city were breached. So it may be that the description of the furiously moving chariots on the streets and their rushing through the squares applies to the chariots of the attackers as they would make their rapid advance in the campaign of conquest. The metal parts on the moving chariots would flash like torches as the chariots would race like streaks of lightning. Interpretive renderings of modern translations vary. “The squadrans of horse advance; they charge madly on the city, they storm through the outskirts, like torches, like the zigzag of lightning.” (REB) “Chariots dash wildly through the streets, rushing back and forth in the city squares. They flash like torches and dart about like lightning.” (GNT, Second Edition) “The chariots dash about frenzied in the fields, they rush through the meadows. They race like streaks of lightning.” (Tanakh) (2:4[5])
According to the Septuagint, the chariots would be thrown into confusion and would clash together in the streets. This suggests that the chariots are those of the defenders. If there is a direct link to the wording of verses 2 and 3 (3 and 4), the defenders would be Israelites faced with Assyrian aggression. In the event the subject changes to Nineveh (as is explicit in verse 9[10]), the reference would be to the Assyrian warriors who would be defending the city. (2:4[5])
The one who would “remember his majestic ones,” possibly meaning his outstanding warriors, likely is the Assyrian monarch who would look to and call upon these mighty men to mount a defense. Yet they would “stumble” in “their going” to confront the enemy. They would hasten to the wall of Nineveh, where some kind of protective structure would be put in position. In their renderings, translators vary considerably, with some taking the reference to be to those attacking Nineveh. “The leaders display their prowess, rushing in headlong career; they dash to the city wall, and mantelets are set in position.” (REB) “An officer gives a command. But his soldiers stumble, as they hasten to build a shelter to protect themselves against rocks thrown down from the city wall.” (CEV) “He summons his picked troops, yet they stumble on their way. They dash to the city wall; the protective shield is put in place.” (NIV) “His captains are called out; stumbling as they go, they speed towards the wall, and the mantelet is put in position.” (NJB) (2:5[6])
The Septuagint mentions great men or nobles, possibly meaning elite Assyrian warriors, as being remembered and taking flight by day. On the way, they would become weak when they hurried to the walls and prepared “their advance guards” or “their defenses.” (2:5[6])
The reference to “gates of the rivers” may be understood figuratively as designating barriers that would protect Nineveh from being destroyed as by a great deluge from rivers at flood stage. These “gates” would be opened, and the attacking forces would overwhelm Nineveh like powerful currents. The palace would “melt” as if an inundation dissolved the mud bricks used in its construction. With the opening of the gates, the palace (according to the Septuagint) “has collapsed.” (2:6[7])
There is considerable uncertainty about the meaning of the form of the Hebrew word that follows the conjunction “and.” As a form of the verb natsáv, the expression may be rendered, “it is determined” or “it is made to stand” and could relate to the fate of Nineveh. “It is decreed that the city be exiled.” (NIV, NRSV) The reference to being “uncovered” and “carried away,” when applied to Nineveh, could mean that the city would be humiliated like a woman who is stripped of her garments, and the survivors of Nineveh’s fall would be carried away into exile. As for the “maidens,” “handmaids,” or female slaves, these could be the women of Nineveh. They would lament as with the mournful sound of doves. “Upon their heart” or upon their breast, they, in expression of their great grief, would beat as upon a tambourine. (2:7[8])
Translations vary considerably because translators have transliterated the form of the Hebrew word natsáv or have rendered the text according to an emendation or an interpretive conjecture. “And Huzzab is exiled and carried away, while her handmaidens escort [her] as with the voices of doves, beating their breasts.” (Tanakh) “And the queen is uncovered, she is carried away, and her handmaids moan as with the voice of doves, tabering upon their breasts.” (Margolis) “Nineveh is disgraced. The queen is dragged off. Her servant women mourn; they sound like doves, and they beat their breasts in sorrow.” (CEV) “The train of captives goes into exile, their slave-girls are carried off, moaning like doves and beating their breasts.” (REB) “Its mistress is led forth captive, and her handmaids, under guard, moaning like doves, beating their breasts.” (NAB) The interpretive rendering “mistress” has been understood as designating either the queen or the goddess Ishtar, and the “handmaids” would then be either those of the queen or the female prostitutes in the service of Ishtar. (2:7[8]; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering.)
Nineveh is likened to a “pool,” possibly because peoples from many nations and great riches had poured into the city and made it strong. Perhaps the words “from days” (which are not included in LXX) could be understood to denote that from of old Nineveh was like a “pool.” In her time of distress, however, the “waters” of this pool, the people who had made the city strong, would flee. The cry for these “waters” to “stand” or to stop so as to provide protection or defense for Nineveh would go unheeded. No one would be turning back. In the Septuagint, the “waters” are referred to as “fleeing” and not standing, “and [there] was no one looking.” No one paid attention to what was happening, but all were focused on making their escape. (2:8[9])
The imperative to plunder silver and gold is directed to the conquerors of Nineveh. There would be no “end” or limit to the stored-up riches consisting of all the “desirable vessels” or precious objects. This is because the Assyrians had accumulated the wealth from the towns and cities they had seized and from the tribute they exacted from the nations they had defeated or which had entered into alliances with them. (2:9[10])
In the Septuagint, the despoiling is represented as having been completed. “They were plundering the silver; they were plundering the gold, and [there] was no end of her adornment. They were weighed down with all her desirable vessels.” The abundant wealth in Nineveh proved to be the city’s adornment. So great was the booty the Assyrians had seized that they were weighed down with all the precious objects. (2:9[10])
Nineveh would be reduced to an empty and waste or desolate condition. The “heart” of the people of Nineveh would be “melting” (breaking [LXX]), indicating that they would lose all courage and hope. Overwhelmed with fear, their knees would buckle, knocking together (loosening [LXX]). Pangs would seize their loins. In view of the calamity upon Nineveh, the “faces of all” the surviving inhabitants would “collect a glow [pa’rúr].” There is considerable uncertainty about the meaning of the Hebrew word pa’rúr. The phrase where pa’rúr appears has been variously rendered (“all faces turn ashen” [Tanakh]; “all faces grow pale” [NRSV]; “every face drained of colour” [REB]; “every face blanched” [NAB]). The thought may be that the “glow” is collected from the faces, turning them pale. According to the Septuagint, “the face of all” would be “like soot on a pot” or take on an ashen or black appearance when faced with calamity. (2:10[11]; see the Notes section for additional comments about the Septuagint rendering.)
Nineveh is portrayed as the habitation of lions, for the Assyrian monarch and the warriors under his command were like beasts of prey, conquering towns and cities, slaughtering many people, and seizing abundant spoils. In Nineveh, the king and the mighty men of his forces were like lions feasting on the spoils of warfare. Both those represented by the cubs and the mature lions walked or moved about securely in the city, and there was no one who made them afraid. So certain was the end of Nineveh (the place where the lion “entered”) that the question is framed as though the fall had already occurred (“Where [is] the habitation of lions …?”) (2:11[12])
Aggressive warfare had filled Nineveh with abundant spoils so that all could share in the bounty. The “lion,” possibly designating the Assyrian king, had torn enough to pieces for “his cubs and strangled for his lionesses.” Indicative of the abundant booty is the reference to prey filling the holes in the lion’s den and torn flesh filling his habitation. (2:12[13])
The introductory “look” calls a attention to the declaration of YHWH of hosts (Lord Almighty [LXX]), the God with hosts of angels in his service. He is represented as expressing himself as being against Nineveh and decreeing that he would burn her chariots (chariot [a collective singular]; abundance or multitude [LXX]), making them go up in smoke. The “sword” would devour her “young lions,” or the warriors in possession of youthful strength. With the Assyrian military might destroyed, the “prey” for Nineveh would be cut off from the land. No longer would the victorious military force be bringing abundant spoils into the city. The voice of Assyrian messengers, threatening siege and demanding surrender, would no more be heard. In the Septuagint, the reference is to no more hearing about the “works,” which would have included the Assyrian military campaigns and the threats and demands directed to other nations. (2:13[14])
Notes
The Septuagint opens verse 1(2) with the words, “Having been delivered from distress, he rose up, blowing [form of emphysáo) in your face.” It appears that the translator used the Greek verb emphysáo to convey the sound of the Hebrew word for “scatterer” (mephíts). The one rising up would be the military force that would attack Nineveh, “blowing” against the city like a fierce storm. Assyria had been the dominant power in the region and exercised control over Babylon, causing distress for the very people who, upon coming to be liberated from the Assyrian yoke, could mount a successful attack.
In the case of the Septuagint rendering according to the punctuation in Rahlfs’ printed text, the last word in verse 2(3) completes the initial phrase of verse 3(4), but the concluding thought is not completed until the next verse (4[5]). “They destroyed their weapons of might from [among] men, mighty men mocking with fire. The reins of their chariots in the day of his preparation, and the horsemen will be thrown into confusion in the ways.” These words are linked to developments involving the Israelites in the kingdom of Judah. The invaders are the ones who destroyed their weapons, and these invaders mocked or sported with fire, which could mean that they set fire to whatever was left after they had conquered and plundered cities and towns. Preparations for a defense against the invaders appear to be represented as futile. With the horsemen in a state of confusion, the charioteers holding the reins would likewise be unable to mount a successful defense in the “day of preparation” for battle.
In verse 7(8), the opening words of the Septuagint are obscure. They may literally be translated, “And the foundation was uncovered, and she went up.” This could be interpreted to mean that Nineveh would be leveled to its foundation, and her surviving inhabitants would be going up from the desolated city into captivity. It is then said that “her handmaidens were led away like doves, uttering sounds in their hearts.” Within themselves, they would moan mournfully.
The opening words of verse 10(11) in the Septuagint appear to represent the survivors of Nineveh’s fall as shaking, trembling, and quaking.
Woe or calamity is pronounced upon Nineveh, the “city of bloods” or the metropolis that had been responsible for shedding an abundance of blood through aggressive warfare. It was also a city of deception or falsehood. Nations that were ensnared into entering alliances with the Assyrians as the means for contributing to their security found themselves deceived. These nations came under the harsh Assyrian yoke, compelling them to pay burdensome tributes. Any failure to do so resulted in being submitted to punitive military action. Nineveh was also guilty of robbery, for the wealth of the city had been accumulated through the violence of war or the threat of such violence. Prey or the spoils of war continued to flow into Nineveh, and so it was a city from which prey did not depart. (3:1; see the Notes section.)
From Nineveh, the Assyrian monarch and his warriors set out to conquer. This meant that the common sound to be heard was that of the whip used to drive the horses, the rapid turning of the chariot wheels, the galloping of the horse, and the bouncing of the racing chariot. (3:2)
One would see the mounted horseman (a “horseman mounting” [LXX], the “flame” or glittering blade of a sword, and the “lightning” or flash of a spear. During the course of the battle, many of those being attacked would be wounded or slain, leaving a mass of corpses on the ground. There would be “no end” or limit to the number of dead bodies. As the warriors advanced, they would stumble on the numerous corpses. (3:3; see the Notes section for comments on the Septuagint.)
Nineveh is likened to a prostitute. Her “harlotries” were great or abundant, for the Assyrians ensnared many nations. She is described as “good,” “pleasant,” or “agreeable” of “elegance,” “grace,” or “appearance.” In this context, the thought seems to be that Nineveh appeared to be attractive and alluring, prompting the rulers of various nations to conclude that entering into an alliance with Assyria would serve to protect them against attacks from other nations. The wording in the Septuagint may be understood to mean that Nineveh was “beautiful” and “agreeable” or alluring. The appearance was deceptive, for an alliance came at a high price — exorbitant tribute and military action for failure to pay. Nineveh was a “mistress of sorceries,” putting the rulers and leaders of other nations under her spell as if they had been given a drugged potion that clouded their reasoning faculties and deluded them into thinking that an alliance with Assyria would greatly benefit them. Possibly because of what the Assyrians did when taking survivors of warfare into exile and dealing with them as slaves, Nineveh is spoken of as selling nations through her harlotries and families through her sorceries or enchantments. (3:4)
The opening “look” focuses on YHWH’s view of Nineveh on account of her “harlotries,” acting like a prostitute when ensnaring peoples and nations into entering treacherous alliances. YHWH, the “God of hosts” (“Lord God the Almighty” [LXX]), the God with hosts of angels in his service, is represented as saying that he was against Nineveh. He would humiliate her like a woman whose skirt is pulled over her face, exposing her naked and shameful condition. The Septuagint refers to uncovering her behind to her face, which could denote that she would be made to look upon her disgrace. People of other nations and kingdoms would then see Nineveh naked or exposed and disgraced as a conquered and devastated city. (3:5)
Because of what YHWH would permit to befall Nineveh, he is represented as casting “detestable things” or filth on her and disgracing her. He would treat her with contempt and make her a “spectacle” (example [parádeigma (LXX)]), letting the conquerors transform her into a desolate site. According to the Septuagint (in Rahlfs’ printed text), he would toss filth upon Nineveh corresponding to her acts of uncleanness or her impurities. Nineveh had behaved like a prostitute and would experience the humiliating treatment like that meted out to a rejected prostitute. (3:6)
All those who would see Nineveh in a devastated state would hurry away (“come down” [LXX]) from the place as if it were a haunted site. Acknowledging that Nineveh had indeed been reduced to a waste, those seeing the site would wonder as to who could possibly be grieved for her and seek comforters for her. The Septuagint also mentions that people would speak of the conquered city as “wretched” or “miserable” Nineveh. (3:7)
To illustrate the certainty of the future conquest of Nineveh, a question is raised as to whether the city was any better (possibly with reference to its defenses and its defenders) than the Egyptian city of Thebes or No-amon (City of Amon, the principal deity), situated about 415 miles (c. 668 kilometers) south of Alexandria. Despite the city’s defensive measures, the Assyrians, under the command of King Ashurbanipal, succeeded in completely devastating No-amon. The plural form of the Hebrew word ye’óhr preceded by a preposition may be understood to identify the city’s location as being either “by” or “among” the streams or the canals of the Nile. Nineveh’s location was likewise on a river, the Tigris. Both the Hebrew text and the Septuagint indicate that water surrounded No-amon. According to the Hebrew text, the city’s rampart was the “sea.” The designation “sea” may refer to the Nile that resembled a sea at flood stage, and water from this sea could have been utilized to fill a moat as part of the city’s defenses, thus making “water” the “wall” for the city. (3:8; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering and the introduction for additional comments about the Assyrian conquest.)
Besides defenses, No-amon had allies. Cush or Ethiopia, primarily applying to the warriors from there, supplied “might” or “strength” for the Egyptian city. The Septuagint refers to Ethiopia as “her strength” or the city’s might. Moreover, all of Egypt (Mizraim) had warriors to defend No-amon. Therefore, Egypt is included as part of the available strength. The combined might of Ethiopia and Egypt is described as having no “end” or limit. Among those providing additional assistance were Put and Libya in northern Africa. (3:9; see the Notes section for comments about the Septuagint rendering.)
Neither the defenses of No-amon nor the warriors from her allies were able to save the city from the Assyrian conquest. “She,” meaning people from the city, were taken captive and exiled. At the “head of all the streets” in the city, warriors dashed children to pieces. The triumphant forces cast lots for the honorable ones or nobles. This may have been for the purpose of determining who would come to possess them as slaves. According to the Septuagint, the victors would cast lots for the “glorious things” or the precious items. As for all the “great ones,” the prominent or influential ones of the city, they “were bound in fetters” as captives. (3:10)
Nineveh, like No-amon, would be reduced to the senseless state of a vulnerable intoxicated man. The city would come to be as if in hiding, unable to mount a successful defense against the attacking forces. According to the Septuagint, Nineveh would be “disregarded” or accounted as not amounting to anything. The city would come to be like someone seeking a protective stronghold from the enemy or, as expressed in the Septuagint, a “position” away from the enemies. (3:11)
All the fortresses or the strongly fortified parts of Nineveh are likened to fig trees bearing the first-ripe fruits. When tree branches on which there is fruit are shaken, the first-ripe figs “will fall into the mouth of the one eating.” The thought appears to be that the figs would be quickly and eagerly consumed. Likewise the fortifications of Nineveh would fall readily before the attacking forces that would then quickly seize the booty as one might consume the first-ripe figs dropping from the trees. (3:12; see the Notes section for comments about the Septuagint rendering.)
The introductory “look” serves to focus attention on what is about to be said. Faced with superior attacking forces, the people of Nineveh, particularly its defenders, would come to be like women or too weak to resist the aggressors. Nothing would hinder the progress of the invaders. The “gates” of the land are described as being open for the enemies, with fire having consumed the bars that secured the gates against entry. (3:13)
Nineveh, as representing the inhabitants of the city, is challenged to prepare for siege. She would need to draw water for herself so that a sufficient supply would be available for the duration of the conflict. Strongholds or fortifications would need to be strengthened. To produce the bricks for fortifications, people of Nineveh would need to step into the mud and trample the clay for it to have the proper consistency for making bricks. The Septuagint indicates that the clay should be trampled with straw. Adding straw facilitated working the clay and greatly increased the strength of the final product. According to the Hebrew text, the next imperative may be translated “strengthen the brick kiln” to handle the essential increased production or “grab the brick mold” to form the needed bricks. The Septuagint says that the clay is to be made stronger than brick or the usual mixture for producing bricks. (3:14)
All advance preparations to deal with the siege would prove to be in vain. “There” at the site fire would consume Nineveh. With the sword, Nineveh, meaning the inhabitants, would be cut off. In this manner, the sword would eat up Nineveh just like a locust (yéleq, probably a locust in its wingless stage) devours vegetation. Both the Hebrew and Greek words for “mouth” (peh and stóma) are also used to designate the “edge” of a sword. Accordingly, those slain by the sword may be spoken of as having been eaten or consumed by the sword. To deal with the approaching threat of attack, Nineveh is told to make herself heavy or numerous (kavéd) like the locust (’arbéh, probably designating the locust in its final winged state). A greater number of warriors and leaders, comparable to a locust swarm, would be needed to face the enemy. (3:15; see the Notes section.)
Nineveh is portrayed as having increased the number of traders or merchants (trade [LXX]) more than the “stars of the heavens [heaven (LXX)],” indicating that the city was the center of thriving commercial activity that contributed to its prosperity. In relation to the many traders, the significance of the reference to the “locust” (yéleq) is not readily apparent. Both the Hebrew word yéleq and the Greek term broúchos (LXX) probably designate a wingless stage of the locust. The Hebrew verb that follows is pashát, which word, depending on the context, has been defined as meaning “plunder,” “undress,” and “strip off.” Possibly the reference is to the wingless locust shedding its skin and then, as a winged locust, flying away. The thought could be that the traders, like locusts, would disappear from Nineveh, providing no assistance to the city. (3:16)
In view of the variety of possible meanings for the Hebrew verb pashát, the renderings of translations vary. “The locust sheds its skin and flies away.” (NRSV) “The locust spreads its wings and flies away.” (ESV) “They [the merchants] are like locusts that eat everything, then fly away.” (CEV) “Like locusts they [the merchants] strip the land and then fly away.” (NIV) “But now they [the merchants] are gone, like locusts that spread their wings and fly away.” (GNT, Second Edition) The Septuagint rendering may be translated, “The locust started moving and was spread out.” A possible meaning may be that the locust swarm, after setting itself in motion, spread out over an area, where it then consumed the vegetation. Another significance for the verb meaning “spread out” could be that the wings were spread out for flight. (3:16)
A suggested meaning for the Hebrew plural noun minnezarím is “courtiers,” and the Hebrew noun tiphsár has been understood to designate an administrative “official.” In being referred to as being “like the locust” (’arbéh, probably the locust in the winged stage), the courtiers or members of the royal court are revealed to be numerous. Likewise, there were many serving in an administrative capacity, for they are designated as being “like the locust [gohv] of locust [gohv].” The expression “locust of locust” may designate a locust swarm. On a cold day, locusts are numb and hide in the crevices of walls. When their bodies are warmed sufficiently by the the rays of the sun, they fly away. Courtiers and officials of Nineveh would be like locusts, making their escape from the city and not being there to render defensive aid. Like a locust swarm that disappears to an unknown location, these courtiers and officials would also come to be in an unknown place after their flight. (3:17; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering.)
The “shepherds” or leaders of the Assyrian monarch are depicted as “slumbering.” Instead of being alert and prepared to carry out their responsibilities as defenders and protectors of the people, they would be as if asleep, unable to do anything to counter the serious threat Nineveh would face. The “majestic ones,” possibly designating the outstanding warriors, are portrayed as settled down. This could mean that they were at ease and in no position to mount successful defensive action. According to the Septuagint rendering, the Assyrian monarch had put his “mighty ones” into a state of rest or sleep, lulling them into a false sense of security and rendering them ineffectual for dealing with a serious threat. As for the people, they were in a vulnerable state like sheep “scattered on the mountains,” with no one or no shepherd to gather them together so that they might be safe. The Septuagint says that the people had left for the mountains, and no one was there to receive them or to look out for them. (3:18)
There would be no alleviation for the crushing that the king of Assyria would experience. The inflicted “blow” or wound would be grievous — one from which there would be no recovery. “All those hearing the report” concerning what had befallen him would gleefully clap their hands at him, rejoicing over his calamitous fall. They would regard his ruin as just retribution for the “evil” he had inflicted on peoples and nations by engaging in ruthless military campaigns and exacting burdensome tribute from defeated nations and those having entered an alliance with him. The extensive suffering and misery the Assyrian monarch had caused is highlighted in the question, “Upon whom has not your evil passed continually?” (3:19)
Notes
In verse 1, the plural “bloods” (both in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint) indicates that the Assyrian warriors spilled much blood during military campaigns. The Septuagint refers to the city as being full of “unrighteousness” or “injustice.” It was not a place where one would have to search long to take hold of “prey” or booty.
According to the Septuagint rendering of verse 3 (Rahlfs’ printed text), the thought is completed in verse 4. After mentioning the multitude of the wounded, the Septuagint refers to “heavy” or severe “falling” and to there being “no end to her [Nineveh’s] nations.” This could mean that there was no limit to the number of nations that the Assyrians had conquered. The next sentence suggests that the Assyrians would experience a reversal. They would “become weak in their bodies from an abundance of harlotry.” Their actions in ensnaring nations and carrying out punitive warfare against those who did not meet their demands would prove to be their undoing, leading to the fall of Nineveh.
In verse 8, the Septuagint rendering departs significantly from the extant Hebrew text. The opening words of Rahlfs’ printed Greek text may be rendered, “Prepare a portion; tune a stringed instrument; prepare a portion, O Amon, the one dwelling among rivers,” streams, or canals. Nothing in the context makes it possible to establish just how these words may be understood.
The Septuagint, in verse 9, does not mention “Put.” Although referring to the Libyans as “her helpers” or the helpers of Thebes, the Septuagint does not apply the aspect about there being no “end” or limit to “strength,” but says that there “is no end of flight,” which could mean flight from the attacking forces.
In verse 12, the Septuagint does not refer to trees with the first-ripe figs but designates them as “fig trees having watchmen.” Perhaps this could be understood to indicate that the first-ripe figs are like “watchmen” that proclaim the start of the harvest.
The form of the Hebrew expression kavéd in verse 15 basically means “make yourself heavy.” This explains the Septuagint rendering, “you will be made heavy like a locust” (broúchos, probably a locust in its wingless stage). To “be made heavy” could mean to “be squashed.”
The Septuagint rendering of verse 17 differs in a number of ways from the extant Hebrew text. “The one commingled [with] you leaped like a small locust, like a locust alighting upon a hedge on days of frost. The sun rose, and it [the locust] hopped, and it did not know its place. Woe to them!” The “commingled one” could refer collectively to all the allies of the Assyrian monarch that would desert him like a locust that departs when the rising sun has sufficiently warmed its body. It may be that the phrase about not knowing its place does not refer to the locust. This phrase could mean that one would not know where the locust might have gone, just as the king of Assyria would have no knowledge about any of his allies when he needed them. The expression of woe or calamity could apply to the Assyrians.