Ancient sources, including the Targum and the Septuagint, attribute the book of Lamentations to Jeremiah the prophet. The Septuagint text starts with the words, “And it happened, after Israel was led into captivity and Jerusalem was devastated, [that] Jeremiah sat down weeping and lamented [or wailed] this lament over Jerusalem and said.” In more recent times, this ancient testimony has been rejected, and the composition has been regarded as an anonymous work that may have been compiled from what originally were separate poems.
The book of Lamentations consists of five poetic compositions that provide a vivid portrayal of the suffering of the people in Jerusalem at and immediately after the time the warriors under the command of Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon besieged and captured the city. With the exception of the last poem, the others are written in acrostic style. Each one of chapters 1, 2, and 4 contains 22 verses, and each verse starts with the initial letter of the Hebrew alphabet that corresponds to the number of the verse, beginning with aleph and ending with taw. For chapter 3, each group of three verses begins with the same letter of the Hebrew alphabet, with the twenty-two groups of three verses being in sequential alphabetic order with one exception. The acrostic style may have served as a memory aid. Although not acrostic, the concluding poem preserves the pattern of 22, for this is the number of lines in the Hebrew text. In chapters 2, 3, and 4, there is one exception to the alphabetic order. The initial letter of the verse (the section of three verses in chapter 3) that begins with pe is switched with the one that begins with ayin, but in chapter 1 of the Masoretic Text the usual alphabetic order is followed, with the ayin preceding the pe. In the oldest extant fragmentary manuscript of chapter 1 (4QLam [4Q111]), however, the pe (verse 17) precedes the ayin (verse 16), making the order consistent with the other compositions.
Fragments of ancient manuscripts found in caves at Qumran preserve parts of all five chapters of the book of Lamentations. Among the manuscripts, 4QLam (4Q111) from late in the first century BCE contains significant departures from the Masoretic Text for chapter 1. In the preserved portions of other manuscripts for chapters 2 and 3, there is agreement with the Masoretic Text, and the departures from the Masoretic Text for chapters 4 and 5 in 5QLamᵅ (5Q6) are minor. Many of the variants will be considered in the commentary that follows.
Formerly, Jerusalem had been a city with many inhabitants. As a depopulated place, however, the city was like a woman sitting all alone in a state of misery (alone like a man afflicted with leprosy [Targum]). “Among nations,” or among the cities of other nations, Jerusalem had been “great” or significant with a sizable population but had been reduced to a state like that of a lone widow without any children. She had enjoyed the position of a princess, never having to perform menial labor like a servant. The inhabitants of Jerusalem had been free people. As captives, however, they were forced to perform hard labor. Therefore, Jerusalem personified as a woman is described as having come to be for compulsory toil (having to pay tribute [LXX]). (1:1)
In her pathetic condition of ruin, Jerusalem is portrayed as weeping during the night like a woman for whom there is no respite from distress through sleep. Tears are never absent from her cheeks. “Among all her lovers,” or the former allies to whom the inhabitants of Jerusalem looked for aid, there was no one that provided comfort. All the “companions” or “friends” (the former allies) proved to be disloyal or treacherous. Peoples that were previously on peaceful terms with Jerusalem became enemies. They did nothing to help, sided with the attackers, or took advantage of the vulnerable condition that a military campaign against Jerusalem had created. (1:2)
After having experienced “affliction” (“humiliation” [LXX]) and much toil or abundant servitude, “Judah” (or the people of the kingdom of Judah) went into exile. After the death of King Josiah in battle with the Egyptian troops under the command of Pharaoh Neco (Nechoh, Necho), the people suffered from the burden of foreign domination — first Egyptian and then Babylonian control and the devastation of war. Additionally, the oppressive rule of King Jehoiakim, the son of Josiah, led to more suffering for the people. (2 Kings 23:29-35; 24:7-25:11) The Targum indicates that the people of Judah went into exile because they afflicted orphans and widows and enslaved their brothers, fellow Isaelites, without granting them freedom after the completion of six years of servitude. In view of the exile subsequent to the conquest of Jerusalem, the city is portrayed as dwelling “among the nations.” This is because it was “among the nations” that the survivors of the Babylonian military campaign came to reside. As captives who were subject to their conquerors, the people had no place to rest and be at peace. Therefore, Jerusalem is referred to as finding no resting place. All who pursued Jerusalem with hostile intent overtook her in straits or narrow places, suggesting that there was no avenue of escape. According to the Septuagint, the pursuers overtook her “in the midst of her oppressors.” (1:3)
The “ways” or roads leading to Zion or Jerusalem are portrayed in a state of “mourning,” deserted because no one was heading for the city to be at the temple for the festivals. All the gates of Jerusalem had been reduced to rubble. Priests who had served at the temple could only sigh or groan on account of the devastation. Virgins of Jerusalem were grieving. The previous mention of the priests may suggest that the virgins rendered service at the temple. (Compare Exodus 38:8; 1 Samuel 2:22.) Another possible reason for the reference to virgins is that they had contributed to the joyous feature of festivals with singing, playing percussion instruments, and dancing. According to the Septuagint rendering, the virgins were being “led away,” apparently into exile. Jerusalem personified (as representing the survivors of the Babylonian conquest) was embittered. (1:4)
The enemies of Jerusalem had “become the head,” having gained the ascendency and control over those who survived the military campaign against the city. These enemies were the ones who prospered. YHWH permitted this calamity to befall Jerusalem. Therefore, he is the one represented as causing the grief that she (as representing her inhabitants) experienced because of the “multitude of her transgressions” (or the many sins that the people committed). “Her children” (or the surviving residents of the city [her “little children” [LXX]) went away as captives “before the face” of the foe or the “oppressor” (LXX), before the triumphant Babylonian military force. (1:5)
The splendor or dignity that the “daughter of Zion” or Jerusalem once enjoyed as a thriving, unconquered city had vanished. Her “princes” (“rulers” [LXX]), in their weak and helpless condition, were like “stags” (“rams” [LXX]) that could “find no pasturage” and so were without needed nourishment. They fled but had no strength before (literally, “before the face of”) their pursuer. Escape was impossible. (1:6)
In the “days” or the time of her “affliction” and her wandering as would persons who had become homeless or been driven away from their land, Jerusalem personified “remembered all her desirable things.” These were the good things that the inhabitants of the prosperous city had enjoyed in former days. The Targum says that Jerusalem remembered the time she was surrounded by fortified cities and strong unwalled towns, rebelling and ruling over all the earth or lands beyond the tribal borders. During the reign of David’s son Solomon, the strong position over other kingdoms that then existed does fit the wording of the Targum. (1 Kings 10:23-28) According to the Septuagint rendering, Jerusalem remembered the “days of her humiliation and her deportation.” A Dead Sea scroll of Lamentations (4QLam [4Q111]) reads, “Remember, YHWH, all our pains that were from days of old.” The thriving state of the past had ended. The people of Jerusalem “fell into the hand” or power of a foe, the military force under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar, and there was no helper to defend Jerusalem and prevent the capture of the city. Enemies “saw her” in the helpless state, and they laughed derisively over her downfall [“all her breakdowns” (4QLam [4Q111])]. (1:7; see the Notes section.)
The people of the kingdom of Judah had been unfaithful to YHWH, engaging in idolatrous practices and conducting themselves contrary to his commands. Their serious sin is attributed to Jerusalem personified and is given as the reason that she became something abhorrent, impure, or filthy. All who honored her previously or treated Jerusalem and her people respectfully despised her as worthless. They saw her “nakedness” or the exposed, shameful condition of a devastated city. In view of what had taken place, Jerusalem personified is portrayed as groaning and turning backward or away in shame. (1:8; see the Notes section.)
The “uncleanness” or impurity of Jerusalem was “in her skirts.” This appears to allude to the defilement from menstruation but, in this case, represents the pollution resulting from sin. In the Septuagint, the uncleanness is associated with the “feet” and thus is more closely linked to menstruation. The people did not consider what the consequences from their lawless actions would be. Therefore, Jerusalem personified is said not to have given any thought to her end or about how matters could eventually turn out for her. The debasement she experienced was extraordinary, astonishing, or unbelievable, “and” (4QLam [4Q111]) there was no comforter for her (or the surviving people) at the time of her downfall. In view of what had taken place, Jerusalem personified is portrayed as pleading with YHWH to see her affliction, for the enemy had become great over her, gaining the ascendancy through military triumph. The petition for the affliction to be seen was an implied appeal for mercy. (1:9; see the Notes section.)
The enemy “stretched out his hand over all” the “desirable things” of Jerusalem, with the intent of seizing everything of value. Jerusalem personified saw “nations,” or the warriors from various nations in the conquering military force, enter the sanctuary or temple. According to YHWH’s commands, people from the nations were not permitted to enter his “congregation” in the holy precincts. (1:10; compare Deuteronomy 23:3 and see the Notes section.)
All the surviving people of Jerusalem groaned on account of their great distress. They searched for “bread” or something to eat, willingly parting with desirable or precious things for food so as to “revive their soul” or themselves, to gain a little strength in their famished state. Jerusalem personified is portrayed as petitioning YHWH to see and look upon her circumstances. She had become like a worthless woman, dishonored or despised. (1:11; see the Notes section.)
Those passing by Jerusalem were asked whether what had befallen the city and its inhabitants was as “nothing” to them — something to be ignored as of no significance or concern. They were requested to focus on the devastated site, to “look and see” whether a pain or sorrow existed like the severe pain or sorrow that she experienced. This great sorrow was what YHWH had brought upon Jerusalem or permitted to befall her “in the day of his burning [or fierce] anger.” According to the Septuagint, he humbled Jerusalem “in the day of the wrath of his fury.” (1:12; see the Notes section.)
Although YHWH used the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar to punish his disobedient people, his permitting them to act in this capacity is attributed to him, and the suffering of his people is depicted as befalling Jerusalem personified. He sent “fire from on high” into the “bones” (“strong cities” [Targum]) of Jerusalem, bringing great pain and ruin to her entire frame. For her “feet,” he spread out a net to trap her like an animal to be killed for food. YHWH “turned her back,” possibly meaning that he turned her back in shame or did not help her to mount a successful defense. He deprived her of everything, making her into a desolate or abandoned woman. “All day long” she was “ill” or in pain, never experiencing any relief from suffering. The ancient scroll 4QLam (4Q111) says that YHWH made her “desolate all day and ill.” (1:13)
Transgressions are the initial focus on what Jerusalem personified is represented as saying. The wording of the Hebrew text is somewhat obscure, and the verse could be literally rendered, “It is bound — a yoke of my transgressions; in his hand, they are intertwined. They have come up upon my neck. He has caused my strength to fail. The Lord [YHWH in 4QLam (4Q111)] gave me into the hands of those against whom I cannot rise up.” For the initial phrase, another possible reading has been suggested. “Watch is kept upon my transgressions.” The basic thought appears to be that YHWH either bound the transgressions together so that they formed a heavy yoke on the neck of Jerusalem personified or that he watched for the transgressions and then intertwined or bound them together to form a heavy yoke on the neck of Jerusalem personified. In view of the many transgressions of the people, YHWH permitted their enemies to triumph over them, withdrawing his help from them and thus leaving them as a people without any strength to resist their enemies. According to the Targum, the yoke of Jerusalem’s rebellion was heavy in God’s hands, and he caused the intertwined acts of rebellion to climb like the tendrils of a vine upon the neck of Jerusalem. The Septuagint indicates that God was watchful of the impieties of Jerusalem and that, by the hands of Jerusalem, these impieties were joined together. This rendering suggests that Jerusalem personified was responsible for placing the heavy burden of her impieties on her own neck. Modern translations contain a variety of renderings. “The yoke of my offenses is bound fast, lashed tight by His hand; imposed upon my neck, it saps my strength; the Lord has delivered me into the hands of those I cannot withstand.” (Tanakh [JPS, 1985 edition]) “My sins were bound like a yoke tied fast by his own hand; set upon my neck, it caused my strength to fail. The LORD abandoned me to my sins, and in their grip I could not stand.” (REB) “You have tied my sins around my neck, and they weigh so heavily that my strength is gone. You have put me in the power of enemies too strong for me.” (CEV) “He has watched out for my offences, with his hand he enmeshes me, his yoke is on my neck, he has deprived me of strength. The Lord has put me into clutches which I am helpless to resist.” (NJB) “He took note of all my sins and tied them all together; he hung them around my neck, and I grew weak beneath the weight. The Lord gave me to my foes, and I was helpless against them.” (TEV) The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible renders the text of 4QLam (4Q111) as follows: “It was bound about my transgressions by his hand; his yoke is secured upon [my] n[eck;] he has made my strength fail. The LORD has delivered me into the hand of him against whom I am not able to stand.” (The expression “my neck” is only partially preserved, and this is the reason for the brackets. “LORD” is the rendering for YHWH (the divine name that is in the text of the scroll.) (1:14)
The “mighty ones” (“perishing ones” [4QLam (4Q111)] the “Lord” threw aside from the midst of Jerusalem were the warriors. They were unable to mount a successful defense of the city. The meeting that he called against Jerusalem was a gathering of troops that would break “young men” to pieces. These young men may have been part of the defending force. “[As in a] winepress, the Lord [YHWH (4QLam [4Q111]) did tread the virgin daughter of Judah.” By means of enemy troops, YHWH trampled the people of Judah as if they were grapes in a winepress. In the Targum, this is interpreted to mean that men of the nations defiled the virgins of the house of Judah, causing the blood of their virginity to flow like the juice from a winepress when a man treads the grapes. (1:15)
Over the calamity and great suffering that had befallen the people, Jerusalem personified wept “like a woman.” She is represented as saying, “My eyes, my eyes flow with water.” Her many tears were like streams of water running down both cheeks. In her state of pain and misery, no one comforted her, the situation being as if any source of comfort was too far away. There was no one who revived the “soul” of Jerusalem personified, engendering any hope in her that would have brought relief and strengthened and enlivened her. The “sons” or people of Jerusalem had become “desolate” or been crushed like a city that is devastated by war. The enemy had “become strong” or triumphed. The Targum represents the intense pain as that of women. Ruthless warriors smashed their infants and, by ripping pregnant women open, destroyed the unborn. (1:16; see the Notes section.)
“Zion [Jerusalem personified] stretched out her hands,” apparently as an appeal for help, but there was no one to “comfort her” (“among all her lovers. You, YHWH, are righteous” [4QLam (4Q111)]). The Targum portrays Zion as spreading out her hands in anguish like a woman in labor and screaming, but no one speaks comfortingly to her. YHWH is represented as having given the command “against Jacob” (the Israelites who were the descendants of Jacob) for those “surrounding” him to be “his foes.” Among them, Jerusalem had become an “abhorrent thing” — something that they would treat with the utmost contempt. According to the Septuagint, Jerusalem would be as one “sitting apart” (like a woman in an unclean state from menstruation) among these oppressors or enemies. The Targum expresses the thought similarly, but interprets the command of YHWH differently. It says that the command was for the house of Jacob to keep the “commandments and Torah” but that the people transgressed. (1:17)
Although the suffering YHWH permitted the people to experience was severe, Jerusalem personified acknowledged that it was not unjust. YHWH is “righteous,” and it was against “his mouth” or the commands that proceeded from his mouth that Jerusalem (representing the people) had rebelled, refusing to do his will. Nevertheless, the punishment was extremely distressing. Therefore, Jerusalem personified is quoted as calling upon all other peoples to see her “pain,” including the loss of the future generation. Virgins or maidens and young men had been taken into captivity. (1:18; see the Notes section.)
The former “lovers” or allies of Jerusalem deceived her, not coming to her aid when the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar came. In the city, priests and elders died, apparently from starvation. This appears to be indicated with the reference to their looking for something to eat so that they might revive, refresh, or strengthen their “souls” or that they might preserve themselves alive. According to the Septuagint, they found no food. (1:19)
Jerusalem personified appealed to YHWH to see the distress in which she found herself. In view of all that had befallen the people, her “innards” were in ferment, indicating that her very being was in a state of great upheaval, unrest, and anguish. Within her, her “heart” had been “overturned. The “heart” or inner self was in turmoil and dread. Jerusalem personified (or the people) experienced great suffering because of having rebelled against YHWH or, according to the Septuagint, embittered him. “Outside” or in the street, the sword the enemy force wielded led to the bereavement of children. “Inside the house,” the situation was “like death,” with starvation and pestilence or infectious disease claiming victims. (1:20)
Although people of other nations had heard the groaning of Jerusalem personified (the people whom she represented), the groaning like that of a woman in severe pain, there was no one among them to provide comfort. Enemies heard about the calamity that had befallen her, and they gave way to malicious rejoicing. YHWH had permitted this to happen. Therefore, Jerusalem personified is quoted as saying, “You caused” or acted, and this is followed by the implied petition for him to bring the “day” of reckoning that he had proclaimed regarding the enemies by means of his prophets so that these enemies might become just like her in a state of distress and misery. (1:21)
The plea of Jerusalem personified was for the badness of her enemies to come before YHWH or for him to notice it and then to deal with them in the same severe manner as he had dealt with her on account of all her “transgressions” (or all the sins of the people). In the Septuagint, the petition is for God to glean the enemies (like a gleaner would gather every grape that remained on the vines after the main harvest) as he had gleaned Jerusalem (or the people) for all her sins. The consequence for Jerusalem personified had been that her “groans” were many, and her “heart” or inmost self was “ill” or in a miserable and sorrowful condition. (1:22)
Notes
The wording of verse 7 in 4QLam (4Q111) is shorter for the concluding part than it is in the Masoretic Text. After saying that none helped, the text continues, “her foes laughed over all her breakdowns.”
In verse 8, a Dead Sea scroll of Lamentations (4QLam [4Q111]) does not contain the Hebrew word that may mean “something abhorrent” (nidáh) but has a form of nud and may here be rendered “one who laments” or “one who bemoans” herself (“Jerusalem has become one who laments”). The reading of the Targum suggests that nud was read as nohd (“wanderer” [Jerusalem “has become a wanderer”]). Additionally, in 4QLam (4Q111), the Hebrew verb for “despise” does not include the suffix for the pronoun “her.”
In verse 9, the Septuagint does not refer to an extraordinary downfall for Jerusalem, but the wording is obscure. It could be variously worded. “She brought down lofty things.” “She lowered pretensions” “He brought down pretensions.” Perhaps the thought is that the enemy brought down the haughtiness Jerusalem displayed prior to her downfall.
For the concluding part of verse 10 and the beginning of verse 11 in 4QLam (4Q111), the copyist appears to have erroneously omitted text. This has resulted in a reading that does not fit the context (“they should not bring her precious things as food to revive her soul”).
In verse 12, the partially preserved concluding words of 4QLam (4Q111) differ somewhat from the Masoretic Text, indicating that YHWH “frightened” Jerusalem in the “day of his anger.”
In 4QLam (4Q111), the words of verse 16 follow the text of verse 17. Also the wording differs somewhat from the Masoretic Text. “For these things, my eyes weep; my tears descend [flow down my cheeks].”
The initial aleph of the word for “lord” is preserved in the fragmentary part of verse 18 in 4QLam (4Q111). This indicates that the divine name (YHWH) is not in this text, although it is in the Masoretic Text.
“In his anger,” YHWH beclouded the “daughter of Zion,” surrounding the city of Jerusalem with gloom. From “heaven to earth,” he threw down the “beauty,” splendor, or glory of Israel — the dignified standing that Israel had once enjoyed as an unconquered and free people. The debasement was comparable to a fall from the sky above to the land below. YHWH did not “remember” his “footstool” (“temple” [Targum]), giving no consideration to it as an object to be spared from ruin in the “day of his anger” or at the time for expressing his anger against his wayward people. (2:1)
In his use of the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar, the “Lord swallowed down” his people. He showed no compassion for them, giving no consideration to the “habitations of Jacob” or the places where the descendants of Jacob resided. “In his wrath,” YHWH tore down the “strongholds of the daughter of Judah” or all the fortified places of the people in the kingdom of Judah. Through military defeat, the people and the kingdom had been made low, brought down to the ground. YHWH had permitted this to happen. Therefore, the act was attributed to him, as was the defiling or dishonoring of the kingdom (“king” [LXX]) and its princes, rulers, or high officials. (2:2)
The expression “horn of Israel” may be understood to designate the “strength” of Israel, and the Targum refers to the “glory of Israel,” which glory or magnificence could include the power Israel possessed. YHWH’s cutting down “every horn of Israel” would mean that the kingdom of Judah was deprived of all power that could have successfully defended the realm. The “right hand” was the one commonly used to provide help and support. YHWH withdrew “his right hand in the face of the foe,” indicating that he abandoned his people to the enemy. In view of the humiliating fall of the kingdom of Judah and the capital Jerusalem, YHWH is represented as having caused burning in Jacob (the land in which the descendants of Jacob lived) “like a flaming fire” that consumed “all around” or everything in its path. (2:3)
To tread the bow means to string the bow, placing one foot in the middle of the bow and then attaching the loose end of the string to the other end of the bow. YHWH is represented as doing this like an enemy or like one who readies the bow for use to attack. His position with the right hand apparently applies to the position for shooting arrows as would an enemy warrior. According to the Targum, he stood prepared at the right hand of Nebuchadnezzar and helped him. By means of the Babylonian troops, YHWH killed “all the desirable ones of the eye.” These “desirable ones” could refer to the handsome young men. The Targum identifies the “desirable ones” or “desirable things” as young men and everything that was beautiful to behold. Into the “tent of the daughter of Zion,” or the place where the people of Zion or Jerusalem resided, YHWH poured out his wrath like a fire that brought ruin to the people and their residences. (2:4)
To his disobedient people, the “Lord” became “like an enemy,” “swallowing” or destroying Israel and all its citadels. He reduced all its strongholds to ruin. What he permitted to happen through the agency of the warriors under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar caused “mourning and lamentation” or wailing to abound for the “daughter of Judah” or the people in the realm of the kingdom of Judah. The Septuagint rendering could be understood to indicate that God caused an increase in the number of the ones who were humiliated and humbled. (2:5)
YHWH’s “booth” apparently designates his temple in Jerusalem, and the Targum is specific in referring to it as the temple. He treated it like a temporary shelter in a garden that is neglected and allowed to fall into disrepair and to collapse. According to the Septuagint, “he spread out [ripped apart (based on another reading)] his dwelling place like a grapevine.” Modern translations vary in their rendering of the Hebrew text. “He laid waste his booth like a garden.” (NAB, revised edition) “He stripped his tabernacle as if it were a garden.” (REB) “He shattered his temple like a hut in a garden.” (CEV) “He has broken down his Temple as though it were merely a garden shelter.” (NLT) YHWH’s bringing “his festival” to ruin appears to mean his laying waste to the temple, the place where the annual festivals were observed. By allowing his temple to be destroyed, YHWH caused the observance of “festival and sabbath” to be forgotten. In expression of his anger for the transgression of his commands, YHWH showed no regard for “king and priest” (“king and priest and ruler” [LXX]). (2:6)
The “Lord spurned his altar,” for the destruction of the temple brought an end to the offerings placed on the altar. He “abhorred” (“trampled” [Targum]; “shook off” [LXX]) “his sanctuary.” The expression “walls of her fortresses” probably means the walls of Jerusalem, which would have included the walls surrounding the temple complex. These “walls” God delivered into the “hand of the enemy,” allowing the attacking warriors to destroy them. Then, “in the house of YHWH,” the warriors let their voice or loud shouts be heard like the sound from a large crowd on the “day of a festival.” (2:7; see the Notes section.)
YHWH determined to reduce the “wall of the daughter [or city] of Zion” to ruins. In this context, his stretching out the “measuring line” may be understood to refer to his establishing the extent of the destruction. He did not turn back “his hand from swallowing up,” not changing his resolve to destroy or demolish everything according to his previous determination. The ruin of “rampart and wall” would have presented a sad spectacle. Therefore, YHWH is the one represented as causing “rampart and wall” to lament or mourn. Reduced to rubble, “together they became weak,” ceasing to function for a defensive purpose. (2:8)
The “gates” of Jerusalem sank down into the “earth,” becoming level with the ground. A number of modern translations explicitly convey this basic significance. “The gates lie buried in rubble.” (TEV) “Zion’s gates have fallen facedown on the ground.” (CEV) According to the Targum, this happened because idolatrous people slaughtered a pig and applied its blood over the gates. (Compare Isaiah 65:4; 66:3, 17.) With the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar, YHWH destroyed and broke to pieces the “bars” of Jerusalem, apparently the bars that secured the gates. The “king and princes among the nations” at that time were King Jehoiachin and members of the royal household or high officials who had been taken into exile about eleven years before the destruction of Jerusalem. In the Targum, there being no “law” (or Torah) is interpreted to mean that this exile occurred because the commands of the Torah were not obeyed. The prophets, apparently the ones to whom the people listened, received no vision from YHWH to provide sound guidance. (2:9)
In a state of humiliation, the “elders of the daughter of Zion” or of the city of Jerusalem sat on the ground. Helpless, they remained silent. In their grief and misery, they placed dust on their heads and girded themselves with sackcloth (a coarse cloth made from goat’s hair) over their bare loins. Sorrowful,“virgins of Jerusalem” bowed low, with their heads touching the ground. (2:10)
Jeremiah (based on ancient sources identifying him as the composer of the laments) expressed himself graphically about his sorrow. He had shed so many tears that he felt as though his eyes had been spent, with no more tears being left. His “innards” were (“heart” was [LXX]) in ferment, or in a state of intense emotional arousal. The sickening and sorrowful sensation seemed to him as if his “liver” or bile (“glory” [LXX]) had been poured out on account of the “crushing of the daughter of [his] people” or his own people. It was extremely distressing to him to witness little children and babies fainting or dying in the city squares from lack of nourishment. (2:11)
Children asked their mothers, “Where are food and drink [literally, grain and wine]?” This was because they, like a mortally wounded warrior, were fainting away or at the point of dying from thirst and hunger in the city squares. Their “soul” was “poured out into the bosom of their mothers,” or their life ebbed away while their mothers held them in their arms. (2:12)
Addressing the “daughter of Jerusalem” or the “virgin daughter of Zion” (the city that had not previously been humiliated to the utmost degree like a virgin that is violated), Jeremiah asked what he could say (literally, “testify”) to her, to what might he compare her in her condition of grief and misery, and what example he could use to comfort her. He recognized that there was nothing he could say. The breakdown of Jerusalem was as “great,” vast, or deep as the sea. The answer to the rhetorical question (“Who can heal you?”) was that no one could restore Jerusalem from her complete overthrow, for it was just too great. According to the Septuagint, the “cup” of her crushing had been enlarged, indicating that the quantity of the bitter potion she had to drink had been greatly increased. The Targum refers to her breakdown as being like the breaking of waves of the Mediterranean Sea during the season of severe storms. (2:13; see 2:11.)
Prophets who had no revelation from YHWH envisioned only worthless and deceptive things. They did not expose the iniquity of Jerusalem, or that of the inhabitants of the city and the rest of the people in the kingdom of Judah, and said nothing that would have moved the people to repent and thus to be spared from going into captivity. All that the false prophets envisioned or made known were worthless and misleading declarations that lulled people into a false sense of security. (2:14)
Passersby “clapped their hands” as a gesture of derision directed against desolated Jerusalem. In expression of contempt and mockery, they “whistled” or hissed and wagged their heads. Tauntingly, they said, “Is this the city that was called perfection of beauty [crown of glory (LXX)], the joy of all the earth [or land]?” According to the Targum, these mockers referred to Jerusalem in terms the “fathers” or ancestors and ancient “elders” spoke of the city. The perfection and joy apparently related to the dignified standing Jerusalem had as the location of YHWH’s temple, his representative place of dwelling. (2:15)
Foes of Jerusalem opened their mouths wide to express their hatred, contempt, and mockery. They “whistled” or “hissed” derisively and gnashed their teeth in expression of their hostility. Their intent was to “swallow” Jerusalem, bringing the city to total ruin. They are quoted as saying gleefully, “Ah, this is the day for which we longed. We have found [what we wanted or waited for].” We have seen [what we desired].” (2:16)
In permitting Jerusalem to be destroyed, YHWH did what he purposed and fulfilled his word, “what he commanded [or appointed] from days” long previously (or decreed would happen if his people unrepentantly proved to be unfaithful to him) did take place. He “brought down,” crushed, or demolished, using the agency of his choosing to bring about the destruction of Jerusalem, causing the foe to rejoice over the city and elevating the “horn” or power of the enemies. (2:17; see the Notes section.)
The “heart” or inmost self of the people is represented as crying out to YHWH. This cry concerns the “wall of the daughter of Zion,” apparently the wall that had been reduced to rubble and that had become a sad sight. The wall is personified as a woman and called upon to weep “day and night,” letting tears stream down like a torrent. There was to be no respite, with the “pupil” (literally, “daughter”) of her “eye” being given no rest or not being permitted to be quiet or to stop weeping. (2:18; see the Notes section.)
Here either the “wall” or more likely Jerusalem represents the people and is told to rise and cry out or lament during the night “at the beginning [literally, head] of the watches.” This could mean at the start of each of the three approximate four-hour watches, starting at sundown. The words “pour out your heart like water before the face [or the presence] of the Lord” may be understood to mean making a full and open expression from the inmost self as if completely emptying oneself, holding nothing back, as if pouring out all the water from a vessel. The Targum refers to this as pouring out the corruption of the heart or the inmost self and repenting. Probably Jerusalem personified is called upon to raise her palms in an attitude of prayer for the “soul” or life of her children or for the residents and the rest of the people in the realm of the kingdom of Judah. The reason for this plea was because the people were “fainting away” or were at the point of dying from starvation “at the head of all the streets.” (2:19)
The petition directed to YHWH is for him to “see” and to “look” at or to consider the severe manner in which he had dealt with the people of Jerusalem and the rest of the kingdom of Judah. Driven by extreme hunger, women ate their own children. The plea included the question whether this should continue to take place and whether “priest and prophet” should be “slain in the sanctuary of the Lord.” (2:20)
Youths and old men were lying on the ground in the streets, probably as they had been killed or were about to die. The Targum refers to them as having formerly reclined on woolen pillows and “ivory couches” (or couches with ivory inlays). Virgins and young men perished as victims of the sword of warfare. YHWH permitted this to occur. Therefore, he is the one who is represented as doing the killing “in the day of [his] anger” and slaughtering without any compassion. (22:21)
It appears that YHWH is represented as inviting “terrors” to come upon Jerusalem (or the people) from every side. No one escaped or survived “on the day of the anger of YHWH” or at the time he expressed his anger against the wayward people. He permitted the enemy (the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar) to destroy all whom Jerusalem personified had “dandled and reared.” The Septuagint rendering may mean that God prevailed and increased the number of all his enemies. (22:22)
Notes
The rendering “abhorred” in verse 7 is a lexical meaning that is derived from the context, but the actual meaning of the Hebrew word is uncertain. Modern translations have variously rendered it (“abandoned” [REB], “deserted” [TEV], “despises” [NLT], “spurned” [NAB, revised edition], “come to loathe” [NJB], “disowned” [NRSV]).
The Targum is more specific than the Hebrew text in verse 17 in identifying what YHWH commanded. It refers to “Moses the prophet” as the one who received the command that, if the Israelites did not observe the commandments of the Lord, he would punish them.
For verse 18, numerous modern translations render the text on the basis of an emendation, and do not start the verse with the words, “Their heart cried out to YHWH.” They represent the “wall” or “walls” of Zion or Jerusalem as crying out. “Cry aloud to the Lord! O wall of daughter Zion! Let tears stream down like a torrent day and night! Give yourself no rest, your eyes no respite!” (NRSV) “Cry aloud before the Lord, O walls of beautiful Jerusalem! Let your tears flow like a river day and night. Give yourselves no rest; give your eyes no relief.” (NLT) “Cry out to the Lord from your heart, wall of daughter Zion! Let your tears flow like a torrent day and night; give yourself no rest, no relief for your eyes.” (NAB, revised edition) “O Jerusalem, let your very walls cry out to the Lord! Let your tears flow like rivers night and day; wear yourself out with weeping and grief!” (TEV) “Cry then to the Lord, rampart of the daughter of Zion; let your tears flow like a torrent, day and night; allow yourself no respite, give your eyes no rest!” (NJB)
The nation (the people in the realm of the kingdom of Judah, especially inhabitants of the capital Jerusalem) apparently are represented under the figure of a man and his suffering. He was the man who had “seen affliction” because the “rod” of punishment had been directed against him in expression of God’s wrath. (3:1) With no hope of relief from the distressing circumstances, he felt that God had driven him into a state of darkness, depriving him of all light. Only gloom remained for him. (3:2) “All the day” or continually, he felt God’s “hand” or power (“blows” [Targum]) repeatedly directed against him. (3:3)
The suffering YHWH permitted to come upon the “man” (the nation) is represented as causing his “flesh” and “skin” to waste away and his bones to be broken. (3:4) He referred to YHWH as besieging him and surrounding him with venom or bitterness and hardship or misery (3:5), forcing him to sit in dark places like men long dead in the gloom of the abode of the dead. (3:6)
There was no avenue of escape for the “man” (the nation), for YHWH had walled him in and the “copper” or bronze fetters that restrained him were heavy. (3:7) Even though he cried out to YHWH for help, he received no response. He felt that YHWH had shut out his prayer from being heard. (3:8) There was no way out of the distressing circumstances, for YHWH had blocked his ways as with hewn stones and made his paths tortuous or filled with obstructions. (3:9)
To the “man” (the nation) on account of the injury inflicted through the agency of the warriors under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar, YHWH was like a fierce “bear lying in wait,” “like a lion in concealment,” ready to pounce on prey. (3:10) He led the “man” off from his ways, forced him aside into danger, tore him to pieces, and made him into one reduced to a desolate state. (3:11) His readying for attack is described as treading the bow, placing his foot in the center and tying the string on one end to the other side, and then setting up the “man” as a target for the arrow shot from the bow. (3:12)
The “sons of the quiver” designate the arrows, and YHWH is represented as driving them into the “kidneys” of the “man” (the nation) (3:13) This “man” had become a laughingstock on account of his suffering, and “all the day” or continually the subject of their mocking song. (3:14) What YHWH had permitted to befall him was comparable to being filled with “bitter things” and sated with “wormwood” (“drunk with gall” [LXX]), a plant with a very bitter taste. (3:15)
The crushing of the teeth with gravel, like the breaking of the bones (verse 4), may simply be part of the poetic imagery illustrating great suffering. Another possible explanation (based on ancient Jewish sources) could relate to the experience of the survivors of the Babylonian conquest who were taken as captives into exile. On the way, they may have had to bake bread in pits that were dug in the ground. Therefore, the grit the bread came to contain may have damaged the teeth when it was eaten. In a state of misery, people may have seated themselves in ashes. YHWH permitted this to happen. For this reason, the things the people experienced are attributed to him. The Septuagint says that God fed him dust or ashes. (3:16) Robbed of “peace,” the “man” (representing the nation or the people) had no “peace” in his “soul.” All sense of security and well-being was lost. According to the Septuagint, God shoved his “soul away from peace.” The extremely distressing situation had eclipsed all memory of good or prosperity. (3:17) In the case of the “man” or the people, the “eminence” or former dignity (“strength” [Targum]; “victory” [LXX]) had vanished. “Expectation from YHWH,” or any hope that he would provide help or relief, had ceased to exist. (3:18)
The plea for YHWH to remember the “affliction,” the “wandering” (as one in a homeless state), the “wormwood (a very bitter plant),” and the “gall” would have been a petition to give attention to the suffering and misery and to bring relief. (3:19; see the Notes section.) In the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, the next verse concludes with “my soul,” and the renderings of modern translations commonly apply the expressions in this verse to the “man” (representing the people). “I will never forget this awful time, as I grieve over my loss.” (NLT) “I remember them indeed [my distress, my wanderings, wormwood, and gall] and am filled with despondency.” (REB) “I well remember them, and my soul is downcast within me.” (NIV) “Remembering it over and over, my soul is downcast.” (NAB, revised edition) The expression “my soul” was anciently identified as a scribal emendation, with the alternate reading being “your soul.” When the reference is understood to apply to the “soul” or the person of YHWH, the thought is that he would remember what his people had experienced and condescend to “bow low” over them in order to give them compassionate attention and to bring relief. (3:20) Just what is recalled to “heart” or remembered depends on whether the previous verse is understood to read “my soul” or “your soul.” For the reading “your soul,” the reference would be to recalling that the time would come for YHWH to turn his favorable attention to his afflicted people as if bowing down to raise them from their low circumstances. This would provide the basis for hope or patiently waiting for him to act to deliver his people from their distress. Numerous modern translations that render verse 20 according to the Masoretic Text (“my soul”) represent what is remembered to be the thoughts about God’s compassion that are expressed in the words that follow. “I shall wait patiently because I take this to heart: The LORD’s love is surely not exhausted, nor has his compassion failed.” (REB) “Then I remember something that fills me with hope. The LORD’s kindness never fails!” (CEV) “Yet hope returns when I remember this one thing: The LORD’s unfailing love and mercy still continue.” (TEV) (3:21)
If it had not been for YHWH’s unfailing love or loyalty, not even a remnant of his people would have survived the calamities that befell them. All would have perished. His mercies or compassionate care and concern for them did not end. (3:22; see the Notes section.) His mercies are “new each morning,” always fresh and never limited, ineffectual, or weak as if drained. His “faithfulness” is “great,” indicating that he can always be relied upon. (3:23) To have YHWH as one’s share would mean to have a relationship with him and to benefit from his loving care. It is this “share” that makes it possible for one to wait patiently on him to provide help. (3:24)
YHWH is “good,” bestowing his favor and blessing, on the one hoping or trusting in him for his help. He is good to the “soul” or person who seeks him, wanting an approved relationship with him and demonstrating this desire when choosing to heed his commands. According to the Targum, seeking him relates to seeking his instruction. (3:25) When enduring distress, it is good for one to wait patiently and silently, without complaining, for the coming of deliverance from YHWH. (3:26) It is “good” or beneficial for a man to bear the “yoke” of affliction “in his youth.” Reverential persons who have endured hardships in youth find it much easier to deal with distressing circumstances later in life. They have personally experienced God’s loving care and his giving them the strength to endure. This provides them with a sound basis for the hope that God will again grant them the needed aid. (3:27; see the Notes section.)
When a yoke of affliction is placed upon a person, the recommended course is to “sit alone and in silence,” not broadcasting one’s plight and complaining bitterly. (3:28) The individual is admonished to assume a humble position as would one whose mouth touched the dust of the ground. This indicates that he should humbly submit to the trials and hardships that God is allowing him to bear. At the same time, one should continue to look to God, recognizing that he can provide aid. There may still be “hope.” (3:29; see the Notes section.) Instead of rising up in violent revolt against oppressors, one is advised to give his “cheek” to the person doing the smiting and to be sated with the reproach or insult that may be hurled at one. According to the Targum, the individual should do this out of “fear” or reverential regard for the Lord. (3:30)
The “Lord will not cast off” his people for all time to come. According to the Targum, he will not give them over “into the hand” or power of the enemy. (3:31) Although he had caused grief for them (“humbled” [LXX] them), letting them be severely punished for their unfaithfulness to him, he, in time, would show them compassion in keeping with the “abundance” or greatness of his unfailing love or kindness (“mercy” [LXX]). (3:32) From his “heart,” YHWH does not afflict or grieve the “sons of man” (or earthlings). It is not his desire to punish, but to grant people opportunities to repent so that he can deal favorably with them. The Targum indicates that God caused destruction to come upon the “sons of man” because of their not afflicting the “soul” (probably meaning fasting as a sign of sorrow and repentance) and not removing haughtiness from the “heart.” (3:33)
The Lord does not approve or countenance the mistreatment of fellow humans. He disapproves crushing “all the prisoners of the earth” or land under the feet, ruthlessly abusing them. (3:34) One who turns aside or perverts judgment or justice for a man will not escape the attention of the Most High, for it is a corrupt act done before his face or in his presence. (3:35) The Lord could never approve subverting or depriving a man of the rightness of his cause, unjustly condemning him. (3:36)
All matters are under the Lord’s control, taking place because he willed it or permitted it. Therefore, when someone says something and it happens, this would be because the Lord allowed it or commanded it. (3:37) The Most High is the source of all that is good, and so both evil things and good do not proceed from his “mouth” or from him. When people are punished for their corrupt ways in expression of his judgment, this is right or just. This punishment is not an evil act. (3:38) For this reason, a “living man” (an earthling) has no valid basis for complaints. A man deserves to be punished for his sins. (3:39)
For the survivors of the military campaign against the kingdom of Judah, including the capital Jerusalem, it was a time for them to search or consider and to examine their wayward ways, seriously thinking about the result to which their corrupt ways had led them. Thereafter their determination should have been to “return to YHWH” as a repentant people. (3:40) The plea directed to God for forgiveness was not to be a mere raising of the arms with open palms like petitioners, but it was to be a sincere plea that originated in the deep inner self — a lifting up of the “heart” to “God in heaven.” (3:41) There needed to be a sincere acknowledgment of sins without any justification. “We have transgressed and rebelled.” The Targum adds why God had not forgiven. It was because the people had not returned to him. (3:42)
The punishment that YHWH permitted his people to experience was severe. Through his use of the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar, he “covered himself with anger” as if he had clothed himself with the wrath directed against his people. He pursued them and slaughtered them without compassion. (3:43) With reference to them, he had covered himself with a cloud, making it impossible for any prayers from his people to pass through to him. (3:44) On account of the humiliation, suffering, hardship, and misery that had befallen the people, YHWH is represented as having made them “offscouring and refuse,” mere dirt, among other peoples. (3:45)
All the “enemies” of the people “opened” (“their mouth” [LXX], apparently with insults, taunts, and abusive and hateful words) against them. (3:46) The people were in a state of “dread,” for their foes had triumphed over them. The reference to “pit” or pitfall could mean that they found themselves to be trapped with no means of escape. In the Septuagint, there is no mention of “pit.” It says “fury,” probably meaning the fury that their enemies directed against the people. The people came to be in a state of “devastation and destruction.” (3:47) The “man” (representing the people or the nation) expressed his sorrow. Tears flowed from his eyes like “rivers of waters” because of the ruin of the “daughter” of his people (or his own people). (3:48) There was no letup in his weeping. His eye had no pauses or breaks from the flow of tears. (3:49) This would continue until such time as YHWH would look down and see “from heaven,” taking note of the distress and bringing relief. (3:50) The continual weeping meant that his eye had caused grief to his “soul” or to him. This was because of “all the daughters of [his] city.” In this case, the “daughters” could be the women or maidens of the city. It is also possible that the city is Jerusalem, with neighboring towns being designated as “daughters.” (3:51)
The expressions from verse 52 onward may reflect the plots of Jeremiah’s enemies and may serve to point to what his people would experience before deliverance would come from YHWH. Without any justification, his foes hunted him like a bird, to be caught and killed. (3:52; compare Jeremiah 11:21-23; 15:15.) In a “pit,” the enemies silenced his life or tried to bring it to an end. They hurled stones at him, apparently to kill him. (3:53; compare Jeremiah 38:6, 9.) His experience was comparable to that of a drowning man, with the water flowing over his head. Therefore, he felt that his end had come. (3:54) In his desperate circumstances in a pit that was very deep, he called on God’s name, the person whom the name represented and used the personal name YHWH. (3:55) He wanted to be sure that YHWH would hear, or respond to his plea, and prayed that he would not close (literally, “hide”) his ear to his “cry for help.” (3:56) YHWH drew near when he called on him, assuring him, “Do not fear.” According to the Targum, God used his angel to save him in answer to his prayer. (3:57; compare Jeremiah 38:10-13.)
YHWH came to the aid of his servant, taking up his case (literally, the legal “controversies of my soul”). He redeemed his life, not permitting his enemies to put him to death. (3:58) YHWH saw the wrong that the enemies of his servant did to him. Therefore, he appealed to YHWH to judge his case. (3:59) YHWH had seen all “vengeance” enemies directed against his servant, “all their devices” or schemes to harm him. (3:60) YHWH heard their “reproach,” insult, or ridicule, “all their devices” or their plotting against his servant. (3:61) “All the day” or continually, the lips of his assailants spoke against him. Their thoughts, imaginings, or mutterings were focused on bringing about his end. (3:62) YHWH knew all about their activities — “their sitting and their rising” and that his servant had been the focus of their taunt “song.” (3:63)
The lament concludes with the expectation that YHWH would act against the enemies. He would repay them “according to the work of their hands” or according their evil deeds. (3:64) YHWH would give them “covering of heart,” which could refer to letting them develop an ever-increasing obstinacy that would lead to their ruin. Another possible meaning would be to deprive them of understanding and thus bring about their end. The curse of YHWH would be upon them. (3:65) In his anger, he would pursue them and “destroy them from under the heavens” or wherever they were on the land beneath the sky. The “heavens” are identified as the “heavens of YHWH,” the domain under his control. (3:66)
Notes
In verse 19, the Septuagint conveys a different meaning. Instead of a plea directed to God, the “man” (representing the people) says, “I remembered from my poverty [or as a consequence of my misery] and out of [or because of] my persecution, bitterness and my gall.” (Rahlfs’ printed text; others punctuate the text differently)
The oldest extant manuscripts of the Septuagint do not contain the wording of verses 22 through 24. A common view is that the words were omitted on account of scribal error.
According to the Targum, the “yoke” (verse 27) is the “yoke of the commandments.” (Compare Acts 15:10.)
The wording of verse 29 is not included in the Septuagint.
The “gold” that once shown brightly became dim or lost its luster, as the gold on the temple became part of the rubble. In the Targum, the gold is specifically identified as that of the temple. On account of the destruction of the temple, the gold could be viewed as having been changed. According to the Septuagint, the change affected the “silver.” The “holy stones,” once a part of the temple precincts, were “poured out” or strewn at the “head of all the streets.” (4:1)
The “precious sons of Zion” probably were the choice young men of Jerusalem. They were highly valued like fine gold, but they came to be treated or regarded like common vessels — earthenware jars that the “hands of a potter” had fashioned. This suggests that the enemy warriors did not consider them as worth preserving. (4:2)
Like other mammals, female jackals care for and suckle their young. During the distressing circumstances that the siege and conquest of Jerusalem created, the people did not exhibit the kind of care that was common among jackals. They became cruel even to infants, not caring for their needs. The cruelty of Jeremiah’s people is likened to that of “ostriches in the wilderness.” This cruelty of ostriches could relate to the manner in which they deal with their offspring. Observations of ostriches in Kenya revealed that female birds without a permanent mate and a nest do not care for any chicks that may hatch from eggs they lay in the nests of other ostriches. Even permanently paired ostriches do not necessarily look after their own offspring. Another ostrich pair with their own chicks will round up chicks from other nests, thereafter functioning as escorts and guardians of more than 100 chicks. Most of these chicks will not reach maturity. In one documented case, only 16 chicks were alive from among 152 that had hatched in the previous year. (4:3)
Infants were so thirsty that the tongue adhered to the roof of the mouth. Children pleaded for bread or food, but no one gave them anything. This suggests that infants and young children were left to die from hunger and thirst. (4:4)
Persons who never lacked food but ate delicacies or enjoyed the very best fare wasted away in the streets from starvation. Individuals who were brought up in “purple” or were richly attired with costly garments came to “embrace ash heaps,” either sitting or lying on piles of rubbish. Modern translations have variously rendered the thought about embracing ash heaps. “Those who grew up in luxury now sit on trash heaps.” (CEV) “Those nurtured in purple now lie on ash heaps.” (NIV) “Those brought up in purple garments now grovel on refuse heaps.” (REB) “Those who once wore the finest clothes now search the garbage dumps for food.” (NLT) “Those raised in luxury are pawing through garbage for food.” (TEV) (4:5)
The “guilt” (“lawlessness” [LXX]) of Jeremiah’s own people (literally, the “daughter of my people”) was greater than the “sin [lawlessness (LXX)] of Sodom,” a city that was overthrown “in a moment,” and “no hands” turned to Sodom to render aid (literally, “whirled about on it”). In this context, “guilt” and “sin” often have been interpretively rendered to mean the punishment for guilt or sin. “The penalty inflicted on my people is worse than the punishment of Sodom, which suffered overthrow in a moment, and no hands were wrung.” (REB) “My people have been punished even more than the inhabitants of Sodom, which met a sudden downfall at the hands of God.” (TEV) “My nation was punished worse than the people of Sodom, whose city was destroyed in a flash without the help of human hands.” (CEV) “The punishment of the daughter of my people surpassed the penalty of Sodom, which was overthrown in an instant with no hand laid on it.” (NAB, revised edition) (4:6)
The form of the Hebrew word nazír has here been understood to designate either Nazarites, men who took a Nazarite vow, or princes. According to the Septuagint, the reference is to Nazarites. The men are portrayed in glowing terms — “purer [or brighter] than snow, whiter than milk” Their bodies were more ruddy than coral, “their cut” (polish or appearance) “like sapphire.” They were strikingly handsome and in the best of health. (4:7) On account of the deplorable conditions of siege and conquest, however, their appearance changed drastically. Famished, they looked “darker than soot.” When seen in the streets, the men were unrecognizable. Their bones could be seen under their shriveled skin that had become as dry as a tree in a time of severe drought. (4:8)
It was preferable for one to be slain with the sword quickly than for one to suffer over a prolonged period until finally dying from starvation. In the case of those starving, their life “flowed” away as though pierced from lack of food — the “produce of the field.” (4:9)
The “hands” of compassionate women, suffering from extreme hunger, boiled their own children for food. According to the Targum, these women had been merciful to the poor. During the period of “breakdown of the daughter of [Jeremiah’s] people,” or the time Jerusalem was besieged and then conquered, the children of compassionate women became food for them. (4:10)
Jerusalem was destroyed because of the serious sins of the people. YHWH permitted this to happen in expression of his rage. He “poured out his burning [or fierce] anger,” setting Zion or Jerusalem ablaze and consuming the foundations of the city. (4:11)
“Kings of the earth” or rulers of other lands and all the inhabitants of these lands apparently thought that well-fortified Jerusalem would not be captured and, therefore, that the foe or the enemy would not enter the “gates of Jerusalem.” In the Targum, the foe is identified as “wicked Nebuchadnezzar” the king of Babylon, and the enemy as “Nebuzaradan” the captain of the guard. (4:12)
Prophets and priests should have been exposing the sins of the people and urging them to repent. The prophets of falsehood and the priests, however, failed in this regard and made themselves guilty of injustices and lawlessness. As a consequence, acts of injustice became widespread, with the blood of righteous ones being shed. (4:13)
It appears that those who had shed innocent blood wandered dazed and confused “like blind men” moving about “through the streets.” Others would not even touch their garments, for these men were polluted with blood. In the Targum, the reference is to persons who were literally blind and stained with the blood of the victims of war because they could not see the slain. According to the Septuagint, “watchmen” came to be “shaken in the exits,” were “polluted with blood,” and inadvertently touched their garments. A number of modern translations are more explicit in their renderings than is the Hebrew text. “Her leaders wandered through the streets like blind men, so stained with blood that no one would touch them.” (TEV) “Yes, her prophets and priests were covered with blood; no one would come near them, as they wandered from street to street.” (CEV) “They wandered blindly through the streets, so defiled by blood that no one dared touch them.” (NLT) (4:14)
It appears that those who saw the men who had polluted themselves with blood treated them like lepers. They cried out, “Away! Unclean [They are unclean (5QLamᵅ)]! … Away! Away! Touch not!” The defiled men became fugitives and wanderers among the nations. No one wanted them to remain in their territory. (4:15)
By means of the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar, the “face of YHWH” (or the person of YHWH) scattered the people and ceased to look upon them or have any regard for them. Wherever they ended up being, priests were not granted any consideration (literally, “they did not lift up the face of priests”) and elders were shown no favor, kindness, or compassion. (4:16)
While people were still alive, their eyes failed as they looked in vain for help. The nation to which they looked for assistance was Egypt (Jeremiah 37:5-8), but no deliverance came from the Egyptian military force. In the Septuagint, there is no mention of the nation. (4:17)
The ones who “hunted” the “steps” of the people or who pursued them evidently were enemy warriors. In view of the danger of being caught, the people could not walk in the squares or the streets. According to the Septuagint, the people hunted for their “little ones” or children so that they would not be walking in the squares. The people considered their situation as being hopeless. They are represented as saying, “Our end drew near. Our days were fulfilled [or our time was up], for our end has come.” (4:18) Their pursuers were swifter than the “eagles [or vultures] of the heavens [birds of prey that were flying and ready to pounce on prey].” There was no place where the people could be safe from the enemy. Warriors pursued them in mountains terrain and laid in wait for them in the wilderness. (4:19)
The “anointed one of YHWH” was the king, the one upon whom the people depended as their leader in time of war. (Compare 1 Samuel 8:19, 20.) He is referred to as the “breath of our nostrils” or the man who was regarded as the very life of the nation, but he had been caught in the “pits” or traps of the enemy. The people had thought that they would live “among the nations” under the protective “shadow” of their king. Zedekiah was the monarch at the time the troops under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem. In the Targum, Zedekiah is not identified as the “anointed one of YHWH.” It refers to King Josiah as the one who was caught in the snare of Egypt. (4:20)
One of the regions Edomites apparently occupied was the “land of Uz,” and “daughter [or people] of Edom” and “land of Uz” appear to be used as parallel designations. The Edomites seized the opportunity to engage in looting after the capture of cities in the kingdom of Judah and then after the capture of the capital Jerusalem. (Compare Obadiah 13.) Their profiting from the suffering of the people of Judah would have provided the occasion for them to “rejoice and be glad.” This rejoicing, however, would be temporary, for the “cup” or bitter potion of conquest and devastation would also pass to them. They would be reduced to the humiliated and shameful state of an intoxicated man who exposes himself. (4:21; see the Notes section.)
The “guilt” (or punishment for the guilt [“lawlessness” (LXX)]) of the “daughter [or people] of Zion” had come to its end. As to future exile, the Hebrew text could be understood to indicate that YHWH would not cause the people to continue in exile or to go into exile again or that no one would again carry them into exile. These meanings are reflected in the renderings of modern translations. “Your punishment is completed, daughter Zion, the Lord will not prolong your exile.” (NAB, revised edition) “Your wickedness is atoned for, daughter of Zion, he will never banish you again.” (NJB) “The punishment for your sin, daughter of Zion, is now complete, and never again will you be carried into exile.” (REB) The time would come when YHWH would “visit” or give attention to the “iniquity” (“lawlessness” [LXX]) of the “daughter of Edom,” uncovering her “sins” or revealing the full extent of her corrupt ways that merited punishment. (4:22; see the Notes section.)
Notes
In verse 21, the Septuagint does not refer to the “land of Uz,” but identifies the “daughter of Idumea” as living “in the land.”
The comment on verse 22 in the Targum of Lamentations indicates that the congregation of Zion would be liberated by the “hands of the King Messiah and the High Priest Elijah,” and thereafter God would no longer exile the people.
The people of Jerusalem appear to be the ones represented as speaking. They petitioned YHWH to “remember” or to take note of what had happened to them and to look at or give attention to and see their “reproach [“reproaches” (5QLamᵅ)].” The “reproach” could refer to the insult directed against them as a conquered people or to the humiliated state in which they found themselves. (5:1)
Strangers took possession of the land inheritance of the people, and foreigners took their homes. (5:2) Their plight was comparable to that of orphans without a father to protect and care for them and that of children with suffering widows as their mothers. (5:3; see the Notes section.) For water to drink, the people had to weigh out silver as the purchase price. Likely this was an exorbitant amount. The people also had to pay for the wood they needed to burn, either to cook food or to keep warm. (5:4; see the Notes section.)
There is considerable uncertainty about the meaning of the initial phrase of the Hebrew text and that of the Septuagint in verse 5. Literally, the phrase may be rendered, “We are [or were] pursued upon our neck.” According to the Targum, the people were loaded down upon the bone of their necks at the time they were taken into exile. Modern translations vary in the meanings they convey. “The yoke is on our necks; we are harassed.” (REB) “With a yoke on our necks, we are driven.” (NAB, revised edition) “We are terribly mistreated.” (CEV) “Those who pursue us are at our heels.” (NLT) “We are hotly pursued.” (Tanakh [JPS, 1985 edition]) On account of the suffering the people had to endure, they were exhausted. There was no rest or respite for them. (5:5)
The people are represented as having “given the hand to Egypt and to Asshur [Assyria] to get sufficient bread.” This giving of the “hand” apparently refers to forming alliances with Egypt and Assyria. The leaders of the people regarded these alliances as necessary for their survival as a nation. To them, it was as essential as being in possession of an ample supply of “bread” or food. According to the Septuagint rendering, Egypt and Assour (Assyria) are represented as giving the “hand.” (5:6)
The people maintained that their “fathers” or ancestors were the ones who had sinned but had died without being punished for their wrongs. The then-living generation felt that they personally were the ones who had to bear or experience the consequences from the iniquities of their forefathers. (5:7)
As a defeated people, Israelites from the kingdom of Judah came to be ruled over by “servants,” and there was no one to rescue them “from their hand,” power, or control. These “servants” probably were the servants or officials of Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon. (5:8)
People risked their “soul” or life just to get their bread on account of the “sword of the wilderness.” This reference to the “sword” could apply to the “sword” of fierce nomadic tribes in the wilderness who might attack anyone trying to get food. A number of modern translations represent the threat as coming from a source other than the sword. “We must bring in our food from the wilderness at the risk of our lives in the scorching heat.” (REB) “We risk our lives just to get bread, exposed to the desert heat.” (NAB, revised edition) (5:9)
“Hunger pangs” or a state of starvation made the skin feel hot like a furnace. The Septuagint rendering suggests that hunger caused the skin to become dark or black as does an oven. A number of modern translations convey this basic meaning in their renderings. “Our skins are blackened as in a furnace by the ravages of starvation.” (REB) “The famine has blackened our skin as though baked in an oven.” (NLT) (5:10)
Married women in Zion or Jerusalem were “humbled” or raped, and so were virgins “in the cities of Judah,” including Jerusalem. (5:11)
One of the atrocities princes of the kingdom of Judah suffered was being hanged by their hand. Babylonian warriors also showed no respect for the “faces” or the persons of elders, apparently not sparing them from brutal treatment. (5:12)
Young men appear to have been burdened with the weight of millstones, and boys stumbled on account of the loads of wood they had to bear. Regarding millstones, modern translations vary in the meaning they convey. “Young men must carry millstones.” (Tanakh [JPS, 1985 edition]) “Young men carry millstones.” (NAB, revised edition) “Our young men are forced to grind grain like slaves.” (TEV) “Young men are led away to work at millstones.” (NLT) “Young men toil, grinding at the mill.” (REB) “Young men are forced to do the work of slaves.” (CEV) The Septuagint says that “chosen ones took up weeping.” (5:13)
Elders handled legal cases in the open areas at the city gates, but they were no longer there at the conquered cities. There also were no young men (chosen ones [LXX]) playing musical instruments. (5:14)
Joy had ceased from the “heart” or inmost self of the people, and joyous “dancing” had been turned into “mourning” or great sadness. (5:15)
The falling of the “crown of the head” could refer to losing dignity or honor. Another possible significance is that it signified the end of the joyous occasions when people placed garlands on their heads. Woe or calamity had befallen the people, for they had sinned seriously. (5:16)
In view of the calamities that had befallen the people, their “heart” became sick. In their inner selves they experienced a weak condition like that of a person afflicted with serious illness. Their eyes grew dim, probably because of repeated weeping. According to the Targum, the devastation of the temple occasioned the weakness of heart. (5:17)
Mount Zion had been devastated, reduced into an uninhabited place through which foxes or jackals passed. (5:18)
The calamitous fall of Jerusalem stood in marked contrast with the permanent state of YHWH’s glory or majesty. He remains in the position of exalted Sovereign as if seated on a throne for all time to come. His throne endures for generation after generation. (5:19) This gave rise to the rhetorical question whether he would forget his people for all time to come, abandoning them for “length of days” or for a time that seemed to have no end. (5:20)
The people are represented as appealing to YHWH to turn them back to him or to restore them so that they might be turned back to him as his approved people. In the Targum, the turning back is represented as a return in total repentance. The people wanted their “days” to be renewed as they had been long ago when they enjoyed YHWH’s favor and blessing. (5:21)
The lament concludes with the sad thought that YHWH had rejected his people and been exceedingly angry with them, evidently on account of their lawless ways. The Targum avoids concluding the lament in this way, repeating the wording of verse 21 regarding restoration. (5:22)
Notes
A Dead Sea Scroll (5QLamᵅ), in verse 3, says that the “mothers” had “no daughters” and were “widows.”
In verse 4, the Septuagint does not include the phrase about water. It reads, “Since our days, our wood came by barter” or at a price.