Joel identified himself as the son of Pethuel, a man concerning whom nothing else is known. The Septuagint spelling of the father’s name, Bathouel, is the same as that of the father of Isaac’s wife Rebekah. (Genesis 22:22, 23; 24:15, 24, 47, 50; 25:20; 28:2, 5; Joel 1:1) Aside from the apostle Peter’s pointing to the fulfillment of the prophecy of Joel about the outpouring of God’s spirit (as recorded in Acts 2:16-21), there is no mention of the prophet in the Scriptures. Joel’s focus on Zion and Judah indicates that he probably resided in Jerusalem.
Unlike many of the other prophets who refer to the reigns of kings, Joel provided no details that make it possible to establish with a degree of certainty just when he carried out his prophetic activity. This has led to disparate views about the time Joel lived, with some regarding his service as a prophet to have begun before the year 800 BCE, whereas others have conjectured that the book of Joel was composed about 400 BCE or decades after the Jews returned from Babylonian exile and no longer had a king from the royal line of David.
In the Masoretic Text and the much earlier Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts, Joel is placed after the book of Hosea. The Septuagint order of the books of the minor prophets is Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel. Although Joel does not appear in the same position, both the extant manuscripts of the Hebrew text and the Septuagint include the book of Joel among the prophetic writings dating before the Babylonian exile. If Joel did prophesy before the Babylonians under the command of King Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem and devastated the land of Judah, his not mentioning a king may provide a clue about when he served as YHWH’s prophet.
After the usurper Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, was deposed and killed at the direction of the high priest Jehoiada, the seven-year-old Jehoash (Joash) reigned as king. Jehoiada guided Jehoash and appears to have handled the affairs of state during the king’s minority. He even selected two wives for Jehoash. (2 Kings 11:1-12:3; 2 Chronicles 23:1-24:3)
During the rule of Athaliah’s husband Jehoram, the two-tribe kingdom of Judah suffered decline. The Edomites revolted against the rule of the kingdom of Judah, and King Jehoram’s military action against them did not stop them from continuing their revolt. (2 Kings 8:20-22; 2 Chronicles 21:8-10) A successful invasion by Philistine and Arab forces was an even greater blow for the kingdom of Judah. The captives the invaders took at that time included all the sons of Jehoram with the exception of the youngest one, Jehoahaz (Ahaziah). (2 Chronicles 21:16, 17)
These developments could fit references in the book of Joel to the captives of Judah and Jerusalem and to the Philistines as being involved in selling these captives. Accordingly, when Jehoash was crowned as king, the kingdom of Judah proved to be but a shadow of its former glory, and the people generally, along with their rulers, Jehoram, Ahaziah, and the usurper Athaliah, had followed a course contrary to YHWH’s commands. Therefore, it is not inconceivable that, deprived of YHWH’s blessing and his abandonment of the wayward people, they suffered from a devastating locust plague and severe drought. (Compare what happened in the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel during the reign of Ahab. [1 Kings 17:1; 18:1-5]) So it may be that while Jehoash was in his minority, Joel began to prophesy and called upon all the people, including the priests, to repent.
The message of the book of Joel, however, is not dependent on establishing just when the prophet may have lived. The message of YHWH through him included prophetic words that began to be fulfilled in the first century CE and pointed forward to a future judgment of people of all the nations. After that judgment, those whom YHWH approved would enjoy his superabundant blessing.
“Joel” means “YHWH is God,” and the opening verse identifies the prophet as the son of Pethuel (Bathouel, LXX). The prophet does not reveal how the “word” or message from YHWH came to him. It may have been in a dream or in a vision. Nothing is known about Joel’s father. Besides the name of his father and his own name, Joel includes no personal information nor any specifics that make it possible to establish just when he served as YHWH’s prophet. (1:1)
The imperative to hear is first directed to the elders. Known for their wisdom, they were the respected members of the community and served the people as leaders and judges. The word of YHWH, however, was not just for them. All the people of the land were called upon to give ear or to pay attention to the message. The elders and the people were asked whether a specific development they had witnessed was one that had ever occurred in their days or in the time of their ancestors. (1:2)
The occurrence the contemporaries of Joel had experienced proved to be unique, warranting that the memory of it be preserved for generations to come. Sons, grandsons, and future generations were to hear about it, with each generation telling about the happening to the next generation. Upon learning about the unparalleled severity of the former calamity, future generations would be reminded about the serious consequences that result from disregard of YHWH’s commands. (1:3; compare Deuteronomy 28:20, 38, 39, 42.)
A calamitous plague of insects of unheard of proportion had befallen Joel’s contemporaries. There is a measure of uncertainty about the particular insects that the Hebrew nouns designate. (1:4)
In the Septuagint, the Hebrew word gazám is rendered kámpe, meaning “caterpillar,” the larval stage of a butterfly or moth. This significance would fit the root gazár (“to cut”), from which gazám is thought to be derived. Caterpillars consume a huge amount of greenery, with each one devouring more than its own weight in leaves during the course of a day. (1:4)
Whatever the caterpillars had not consumed, another voracious insect, the locust, began to devour. Locusts (Hebrew, ’arbéh; Greek, akrís) constitute a devastating plague, with each migratory desert locust daily consuming the equivalent of its own body weight in vegetation. (1:4)
The Hebrew word yéleq and the Greek term broúchos that is found in the Septuagint probably designate a wingless stage of the locust. Yéleq has been rendered “grasshopper” or “hopper.” (1:4)
Whatever the other insects may have left behind is represented as satisfying the appetite of the creature known in Hebrew as chasíl. Lexicographers have suggested that chasíl denotes a particular stage in the life cycle of the locust or that the term designates the “cockroach.” In the Septuagint, the Hebrew noun is rendered erysíbe, which has been defined as “rust,” “blight,” or “mildew.” (1:4)
With the insect hordes having devastated the grapevines, the harvest, if not nonexistent, would have been minimal. The drunkards are directed to “awake” or to sober up. Deprived of their supply of new wine, those given to drink should weep and howl or wail loudly and bitterly. The effect on the drinkers would have been as though the wine had been cut off from their mouths, there being no wine for them to drink. According to the reading of the Septuagint, those drinking to the point of intoxication were to wail “because merriment, also joy, has been removed from [their] mouth.” No more would they be able to experience the temporary cheering effect from drinking wine. (1:5)
It appears that YHWH is represented as referring to the insect hordes as a “nation” that had invaded his “land.” As evident from the repeated mention of Zion or Jerusalem in the next chapter, the land is the territory of Judah where his people resided. From the standpoint of the devastation it caused and the number of its members, the “nation” was mighty and beyond counting. The capacity of this nation to devour everything in its path appears to be the basis for likening its teeth to those of a lion (Hebrew, aryéh; Greek, léon). (1:6)
In the parallel expression that follows, the Hebrew word for “lion” is laví’, which noun is rendered skýmnos in the Septuagint and can designate a lion cub. There is uncertainty among lexicographers about the meaning of laví’, with “lioness” being commonly suggested. The other Hebrew noun in the parallel phrase is methalle‘óhth, which lexicographers have variously defined as “jawbones,” “incisors,” or “gnawers.” The corresponding Greek word in the Septuagint is the plural noun mýlai (“molars”). As a parallel expression of the word for “teeth,” “incisors” or “molars” would appear to be the preferable significance for methalle‘óhth. Renderings found in modern translations for the concluding words include “his molars those of a lioness” (NAB), “fangs of a lioness” (ESV, HCSB, NIV, NJB, NRSV, REB), “fangs of a lion’s breed” (Tanakh [NJPS]), “long, sharp teeth of a female lion” (NLB), “jaw-teeth of a lioness” (Young), and “jaws like a female lion” (NCV). (1:6)
The land in which the Israelites lived belonged to YHWH, and they were but resident aliens and settlers therein. (Leviticus 25:23) He was also the owner of everything the land produced and, therefore, he is represented as saying “my vine” and “my fig tree.” In this case, “vine” and “fig tree” denote all the grapevines and fig trees of the land. (1:7)
The invading “nation” or insect horde had reduced grapevines to an appalling sight or a horrific ruin and damaged fig trees, making them appear as having been splintered [qetsapháh] or reduced to unproductive stumps. Grapevines had been completely stripped bare. In the Hebrew text the thoroughness of what the “nation” had done to the vine is expressed by repetition, “stripping, it has stripped.” Although preserving the repetition, the Septuagint literally reads, “searching, it has searched out.” This rendering could suggest that nothing escaped the voracious insect horde. Additionally, the Septuagint indicates that the “nation” threw the vine down or away. Without leaves and stripped of the bark, the branches of the vines were white (1:7; regarding qetsapháh, see the Notes section.)
The “virgin” would be a young woman engaged to be married and considered as already belonging to her future husband. Her intense grief would result from losing him in death prior to their being united in marriage. As a mourner, she would gird herself with sackcloth, a coarse cloth that was commonly made of goats’ hair. Just as she would lament bitterly because of her loss and resulting widowhood, the people are called upon to wail on account of the devastation the insect horde had caused. According to the Septuagint, they were to give way to greater mourning before God than that of a bride upon losing her betrothed in death. (1:8)
Devastated fields and vineyards meant that the people had no grain offering nor drink offering of wine to present at the “house of YHWH” or the temple. Because such offerings had been “cut off” or come to a stop at the temple, the “priests,” those ministering for YHWH or, according to the Septuagint, at the “altar,” would not be receiving their portions of the offerings. This occasioned their mourning or lamenting. (1:9)
In the Hebrew text, “field” is a collective singular referring to the cultivated land as a whole. The insect plague had devastated the fields. Because the grain had been ruined, the “new wine” (tiróhsh) had been dried up, and the “fresh oil [yitshár] languished [’amál],” the land is represented as mourning. Having been laid waste, the land had taken on a sad appearance. (1:10)
In this context, the Hebrew noun tiróhsh may be understood to refer to the juice that is in the grapes and from which the “new wine” would be produced. Any grapes remaining on the stripped vines were “dried up” or completely shriveled. (1:10)
The Hebrew word yitshár here designates the oil from olives. There is a possibility that yitshár applies to the oil in the fruit. Whereas the basic meaning of the verb ’amál is “languish,” “to become feeble,” “be weak,” or “fade away,” these are not English expressions that would be used when referring to a reduction in the supply of olive oil. In the Septuagint, the corresponding verb is oligóo, meaning “become few,” “diminish,” or “become scarce.” Seemingly, then, any olives still on the trees after the insect plague would have yielded very little oil. (1:10)
In the Septuagint, the sentence that began in verse 9 continues here, with the first word being hóti (“because”). According to this reading, the priests were to mourn because the “plains” or fields had “suffered misery” or “experienced ruin.” Then the land is told to mourn because misery or ruin had come upon the grain. (1:10)
The Hebrew word ’ikkár can designate a plowman or, in a broader sense, a farmer or field hand. According to a literal reading of the Hebrew text, the directive to farmers is, “Be dried up” (a form of the Hebrew verb yavésh, as in the previous verse [“the new wine is dried up.”). The thought appears to be that they are told, “Be sapped of your strength.” On account of the ruined harvests, farmers would be, as one might express idiomatically, “lacking juice.” (1:11)
Modern translations have variously rendered the introductory words of verse 11 according to an emendation. Instead of considering the Hebrew word to be a form of yavésh, (“be dry” or “wither”), numerous translators have accepted the view that the probable reading is a form of bohsh, meaning “be ashamed.” “Be ashamed, O farmers.” (NASB, NKJV) “Be ashamed, O tillers of the soil.” (ESV) “Be appalled, you husbandmen!” (NAB) “Despair, you farmers.” (NIV, REB) “Be dismayed, you farmers.” (NRSV) “Stand dismayed, you farmers.” (NJB) These renderings, do not have the support of the Septuagint, which reads, “The farmers are dried up.” The corresponding Greek word for the Hebrew verb yavésh is a form of xeraíno, meaning “to be dried,” “become “dry” or “wither.” There is, however, support in the Vulgate, where the words are rendered confusi sunt agricolae (“farmers are confused,” ashamed, or dismayed) (1:11)
Vinedressers are told to “howl,” or to wail bitterly. This would be because the insect plague had ruined the grapevines. The Hebrew text then mentions the wheat and the barley, crops growing in the fields that had likewise been devastated and over which the farmers would lament. For the farmers, the harvest had been destroyed, giving them reason to wail. In the Septuagint, vinedressers are not mentioned. It addresses the “possessions,” or the properties consisting of land, “Mourn, O possessions, over wheat and barley, because the harvest has vanished from the field.” (1:11)
The “vine,” or the grapevines collectively, had dried up. This may indicate that, besides the insect plague, there was also a period of drought. The “fig tree” (a collective singular) is referred to as “languishing” (’amál). As in the Septuagint in verse 10, the Hebrew verb ’amál is here also rendered oligóo, meaning “become few,” “diminish,” or “become scarce.” The thought may be that the fig trees produced very little, if any, fruit. Pomegranates, date palms, apple trees, “all the trees of the field,” had withered. (1:12)
With grapevines and fruit-bearing trees having withered, the people (literally, the “sons of man”) were deprived of the joy associated with a good harvest. Their exultation is referred to as having “dried up.” According to the Septuagint, the verse concludes with the words, “for the sons of men have shamed joy.” This could be understood to mean that joy had been eclipsed from the people and that they had thus put it to shame. (1:12)
The words of verse 13 expand on the basic thoughts that were already expressed in verse 9. “Girding” refers to the putting on of sackcloth around the loins of the bare skin. In addition to thus girding themselves, the priests are directed to lament. As men who officiated at the altar, the priests are called “ministers of the altar.” The prophet also referred to them as “ministers of my God.” They are told to “howl” or wail and to spend the night while girded with sackcloth, a coarse cloth customarily made of goats’ hair. The insect plague and drought had ruined the grapevines and the crops growing in the fields, resulting in the withholding of the usual grain and drink offerings from the house of God or the temple. This development called for tangible expressions of lamenting. (1:13)
With the exception of a few differences, the Septuagint rendering is basically the same as the Hebrew text. In expression of lamentation, the priests were to beat themselves on the breast. They were told to enter the place where they would spend the night and to sleep there in sackcloth. (1:13)
The priests must have recognized that YHWH had withheld his blessing because of the transgressions of the people and that all needed to repent. YHWH’s message through Joel directed the priests to sanctify a fast. This required that they set apart a time of fasting to YHWH in expression of sorrow and repentance for sins. Moreover, the priests were commanded to arrange for a solemn assembly, calling for the elders or leaders of the people to gather together. (1:14; see the Notes section.)
The phrase that follows “elders” literally reads “all inhabiting the land [or ‘earth’].” This could refer to all the elders who lived in the land or to all the inhabitants of the land in addition to the elders. Both meanings are found in translations. “Gather the elders, all who dwell in the land.” (NAB) “Send for all of the elders who live in the land.” (NIRV) “Gather the elders and all the inhabitants of the land.” (ESV) “Summon the elders and all who live in the land.” (NIV) Another interpretation found in a number of translations represents the elders as being directed to call for the people to assemble. “You elders, gather all who live in the land.” (REB) “You elders, summon everybody in the country.” (NJB) All who would then be assembled at the temple (the “house of YHWH your God”) were to cry out, supplicating YHWH to be forgiven of their sins and to be granted his favorable attention. (1:14)
In the Septuagint, the adverb ektenós modifies the verb rendered “cry out.” This adverb has been defined as meaning “earnestly, “zealously,” fervently,” and “eagerly.” (1:14)
The interjection commonly rendered “alas” expresses horror or dismay. In the Septuagint, this interjection, though appearing only once in the extant Hebrew text, is repeated three times. The words “alas for the day” reflect a fearful foreboding respecting a day of judgment to come. This suggests that the devastating insect plague was but a precursor of that day. The prophetic word indicated that the time of judgment, the “day of YHWH,” was “near” and would come like ruin from the Almighty. (1:15)
In Hebrew, the word for “ruin,” “devastation,” or “destruction” is shod, and the designation for “Almighty” is Shaddai. The only spelling difference in the consonantal text is the final yod (Y) for Shaddai. This appears to explain why the Septuagint translator did not differentiate between the two nouns but translated them with the same Greek word talaiporía (“distress,” “trouble,” “misery,” or “wretchedness”). The Septuagint rendering (“because the day of the Lord is near, and like distress out of distress it will come”) suggests that the day of YHWH would result in great trouble or suffering. (1:15)
The opening Hebrew word ha-lo’ is a negative interrogative particle that introduces a question which is expressed as a negative but calls for an affirmative answer. An example in English would be, “Is it not so?” Accordingly, a number of translations represent the sentence as a question. “Has not the food disappeared before our very eyes?” (NJB) “Has not the food been cut off before our very eyes — joy and gladness from the house of our God?” (NIV) Other translators have chosen not to render the words as a question. “For food is cut off before our very eyes.” (Tanakh [NJPS]) “Our food is already gone.” (CEV) In the Septuagint, there is no corresponding term for the Hebrew particle, and the sentence reads, “Before your eyes, food has been completely destroyed.” (1:16)
Seemingly, the reference still is to the ruined harvests on account of the insect plague, resulting in food being “cut off” right in front of the people’s eyes. At the temple (the “house of our [‘your,’ LXX] God”), joy and rejoicing had also been cut off. Without good harvests, the people had no reason to be joyful. They would not have been jubilant and made expressions of thanksgiving as when vineyards and fields produced abundantly. If not virtually nonexistent, grain and drink offerings would have been few. (1:16)
With minor variations, translators have commonly rendered the first phrase of verse 17 as follows: “The seeds are shriveled beneath the clods.” (NIV; comparable renderings are found in CEV, ESV, NAB, NASB, NJB, NRSV, REB, Tanakh [NJPS].) Interpretive translations include: “The seeds die in the parched ground.” (NLT) “Though we planted fig seeds, they lie dry and dead in the dirt.” (NCV) Three of the words in the phrase are not found anywhere else in the Hebrew Scriptures, and there is considerable uncertainty about what they mean. (1:17)
Based on the meaning of the Arabic word ‘abisa, lexicographers have defined the Hebrew verb ‘avásh as “shrivel” or “dry up.” A Dead Sea Scroll manuscript (4QXIIc) contains the verb ‘ipésh, which can denote “become moldy,” “rot,” or “decay.” The Septuagint has a form of skirtáo, meaning “skip” or “leap.” (1:17)
The Hebrew word that numerous translators have rendered “seed” or “seeds” is perudóhth, which noun has been linked to a Hebrew word in the Talmud that means “pebble” or “berry.” Lexicographer Ludwig Koehler conjectured that the Hebrew noun designated “dried figs,” but his view has not gained wide acceptance. One meaning that appears to fit the context better than “seeds” or “dried figs” is “stored provisions.” The noun perudóhth may be drawn from parád (“separate” or “divide”). If this is the case, perudóhth could denote that which is separated or set apart for future use and, hence, “stored provisions.” Such provisions could be spoken of as shriveling. (1:17)
The extant Dead Sea Scroll text (4QXIIc), however, does not support any of the definitions that lexicographers have suggested. It contains the consonants of the Hebrew word for “heifers” or “cows,” with the only difference being that the added waw (W) after the first letter functions as a vowel. In the Septuagint, the noun is the plural of dámalis, a noun that likewise refers to a “heifer” or “young cow.” Much of the text is not preserved in the Dead Sea Scroll, but the first two words may be rendered “cows decay.” This could be understood to indicate that the animals starved to death and their carcasses began to rot. (1:17)
The plural form of the Hebrew noun megrapháh is often translated “clods.” Other definitions for this word, based on cognate languages, are “shovels,” “hoes,” or “spades.” In the Septuagint, the corresponding noun is the plural of phátne (“manger” or “stall”). According to the Septuagint rendering, the heifers would be skipping or leaping at their feeding troughs or in their stalls. Perhaps this could be interpreted to signify that the heifers had no pasturage because of the insect devastation and were leaping in front of the mangers for feed, only to find them empty. Another possibility is that their leaping reflected their restless state on account of having no feed in the mangers or in the stalls. (1:17)
Storehouses are portrayed as devastated and granaries as broken down. The thought may be that, on account of the drying up of grain, storage places were not maintained or abandoned. Thus they would have been reduced to a state of ruin. (1:17; see the Notes section.)
The Septuagint opens verse 18 with a question that is not found in any extant Hebrew text. “What shall we put aside for ourselves?” In view of the ruined harvests, there would have been virtually nothing to store for future use. The Septuagint continues, “Herds of cattle have lamented because no pasture exists for them, and the flocks of sheep have been destroyed.”
Literally translated, the Hebrew text starts with an exclamation, “How the beast groaned!” The word for “beast” is a collective singular that, in this context, applies to domestic animals generally. On account of insect devastation and drought, the animals are portrayed as groaning because of suffering from hunger and thirst. Herds of cattle were “confused,” for there was no pasture for them. In their confusion, they wandered aimlessly to find some vegetation on which to feed. “Even the flocks of sheep” ended up “bearing guilt.” On account of the transgressions of the people, YHWH withheld his blessing, and this also resulted in distress for the animals. Accordingly, the sheep suffered for the sins of human transgressors. (1:18; see the Notes section.)
The prophet cried out to YHWH because of the calamity that had befallen the people. “Fire” had consumed the “pastures of the wilderness.” The mention of the drying up of water in the next verse indicates that the “fire” applies to severe drought, which had scorched all the vegetation growing in the “wilderness” or on uncultivated land. Drought had set all the “trees of the field” ablaze, withering the leaves and making the trees appear as if they had come through a fire. (1:19; see the Notes section.)
The prophet portrayed the animals as “longing for” or “looking up to” (LXX) YHWH for relief from their suffering because the “channels of water” had dried up, and “fire” (drought) had “consumed” the “pastures of the wilderness,” leaving behind only scorched vegetation in uncultivated areas. Thus the prophet perceived that the animals were just as dependent on YHWH as were the people for food and water. (1:20; see the Notes section.)
Notes
In the Hebrew Scriptures, the only occurrence of the noun qetsapháh is in Joel 1:7. Lexical definitions for this word include “snapping,” “splintering,” and “stump.” The corresponding Greek word in the Septuagint is synklasmós, meaning “breaking” or “breakage.”
In verse 14, a Dead Sea Scroll manuscript (4QXIIc) includes the conjunction “and” after the word for “fast.”
Instead of a word that may be translated “granaries” in verse 17, the Septuagint rendering is the plural of lénos (“winepress”).
In an extant Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc), the definite article precedes the word for “cattle” (in verse 18).
In verse 18, the Greek word translated “destroyed” (aphanízo) is also found in verse 17 with reference to the “storehouses.” The corresponding Hebrew term in verse 18 means to “bear guilt” and is not the same word as in verse 17. The word for “bear guilt” has one extra letter (an aleph); otherwise the consonants are identical for the Hebrew word meaning “destroyed” or “ruined.” This may explain why the Septuagint translator used a word for “destroyed” in both occurrences.
In verse 19 of an extant Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc), the definite article precedes the word for “wilderness.”
The Hebrew word translated “consumed” in verse 20 is the same word that appears in verse 19 when referring to what the “fire” had done to the “pastures of the wilderness.” The Septuagint, however, contains a synonym. To indicate the difference in English, the form of the Greek word analísko (verse 19) may be rendered “consumed,” and the form of katesthío (verse 20) may be translated “devoured.” In the Septuagint, the expression for “pastures of the wilderness” is “beautiful things [or ‘beautiful places’] of the wilderness” and probably designates uncultivated land where greenery flourished.
Those who are directed to blow a shofar or ram’s-horn trumpet (“trumpet a trumpet,” LXX) in Zion or Jerusalem are not identified. According to the context, the trumpet blast would signal the arrival of the “day of YHWH” or of the time for the execution of his judgment. As the location of his temple or his representative place of dwelling, Zion is designated as his holy mountain. Crying out or “heralding” (LXX) from there would apply to making an outcry of alarm. (2:1)
All those inhabiting the “earth” or the “land,” specifically Judah, were to tremble in fear because of the arrival of the “day of YHWH.” Joel, under the influence of God’s spirit, apparently saw in the devastating locust plague, the approach of this “day.” Seemingly, because of the severity of the plague, the prophet spoke of the “day of YHWH” as though a then-present reality or as having come, and he proceeded to describe the “day” that was near. (2:1)
The day that was at hand is described as one of “darkness and gloom.” This is because of what it would mean for those whom YHWH disapproved. There would be nothing to brighten their future. (2:2)
It would be a day of “cloud and thick darkness [‘araphél].” The Septuagint rendering for ‘araphél is homíchle, which word can designate “mist,” “fog,” “gloom,” or “darkness.” Accordingly, the day could be compared to a day of dark clouds and thick fog, with visibility being almost nonexistent. (2:2)
The expression “like dawn [sháchar] spread upon the mountains” could refer to the light of the rising sun becoming visible above the tops of the mountains as if being spread over them. According to a different vowel pointing, the consonants of the word sháchar could be read as shechór, meaning “blackness.” Numerous modern translations have adopted this significance (“like blackness spread upon the mountains” [NRSV]; “like blackness spread over the mountains” [REB]; “like thunderclouds” [CEV]) The Septuagint does not support understanding the Hebrew word to apply to “blackness.” It reads órthros, meaning “dawn” or “early morning.” (2:2)
Like the dawn, a “great” or numerous and “mighty” people is portrayed as appearing on the scene. Based on the description that follows, this “people” consists of a huge swarm of desert locusts. Because of the astronomically large numbers in a swarm and the voracious appetites, desert locusts are appropriately called “great and mighty.” Within less than half a square mile (about one square kilometer), there can be between roughly 40 million and as many as some 80 million desert locusts, and an exceptionally large swarm may cover an area of 460 square miles (c. 1,200 square kilometers). The extraordinarily numerous and mighty “people” would not be like any previous one and would not be duplicated in the years to come. There would be nothing comparable to it in “generation after generation.” (2:2)
Once a swarm of locusts alights on a field, the effect is like a consuming fire as the insects devour everything in their path. After they leave the field behind, its appearance is comparable to its having been burned. Land with a flourishing crop and resembling the beauty of the “garden of Eden” (or, according to the Septuagint, a “paradise of delight”) is transformed into a desolated field. Absolutely nothing escapes the voracious appetite of the numerous and mighty “people.” A very large swarm of locusts may consume more than 400 million pounds (over 180 million kilograms) of crops in just one day. (2:3)
In appearance, locusts, particularly their heads, resemble horses. Like “horsemen” on their mounts, they “run,” “will pursue” (form of katadióko [LXX]), move swiftly, or charge. (2:4)
The sound of the leaping of the “people,” the locust swarm, “on the top of the mountains” is likened to that of “chariots,” or the whirring sound of many chariot wheels in motion, and is compared to that of a “flame of fire” as it consumes “stubble.” In modern times, the sound of a locust swarm has been described as resembling a continuous hailstorm, muffled distant thunder, or a train in motion. The locust swarm (the “mighty people” or, according to the Septuagint, the “numerous and mighty people”) is like an army “drawn up [for] battle,” prepared to devastate everything in its path. (2:5; see the Notes section.)
Before the “face” or in front of the “mighty people” or the locust swarm, those who experience its onslaught would “writhe,” come to be in a state of anguish, or would be “crushed” (LXX). Overwhelmed by the huge number of locusts, they could do nothing to protect their crops from being devastated and to safeguard themselves from facing severe famine. All their “faces” would “collect a glow [pa’rúr].” (2:6)
There is considerable uncertainty about the meaning of the Hebrew word pa’rúr. The phrase where pa’rúr appears has been interpretively rendered. “All faces turn ashen.” (Tanakh [NJPS]) “All faces grow pale.” (NRSV) “Every face is drained of colour.” (REB) “Every face blanches.” (NAB) The thought would be that the “glow” is collected from the faces, turning them pale. According to the Septuagint, “every face” would be “like soot on a pot” or take on an ashen or black appearance when faced with the locust onslaught. The Syriac reads similarly, “All faces will be blackened as the blackness of a pot” (or “jar”). While the Vulgate also contains the word for “pot,” the complete phrase does not convey a comprehensible meaning (omnes vultus redigentur in ollam [“all visages will be reduced to a pot”]). (2:6)
The “mighty people” (the locust swarm) move onward like an army, “running” like mighty men or warriors, ascending or scaling a wall, each one going in its ways, and they do not turn aside from their paths (literally, “take a pledge [‘avát] from their paths”). The literal rendering of the form of the Hebrew verb ‘avát, meaning “take a pledge” or “borrow,” does not convey an understandable significance, and the part of the text where this word appears is not preserved in any of the extant Dead Sea Scrolls. According to the Septuagint, “By no means will they turn from their paths.” Modern translations have commonly followed this meaningful rendering, which also has the support of the Vulgate and the Syriac. (2:7; see the Notes section.)
The forward movement of a locust swarm is comparable to that of an army, with no warrior pushing or jostling his fellow in the ranks and each one continuing to advance in his course. A literal rendering of the words that follow is, “And among the weapons they fall [and] are not cut off.” This could mean that, while human efforts directed against the swarm would kill many of the locusts, their onslaught could not be stopped. Translators have variously rendered the Hebrew text, and also in ways that are suggestive of a military force. “Weapons cannot halt their attack.” (REB) “They burst through the weapons and are not halted.” (NRSV) “Arrows fly, they still press forward, never breaking ranks.” (NJB) “Even arrows and spears cannot make them retreat.” (CEV) “They plunge through defenses without breaking ranks.” (NIV) “Though they fall into the ditches, they are not checked.” (NAB) (2:8)
In the phrase about not “pushing” or “jostling,” the two Hebrew words that are commonly translated “one another” are the nouns ’ish (“man”) and ’ach (“brother”). This accounts for the Septuagint rendering, “And each one will not be far from his brother.” In view of the phrase that follows, the words of the Septuagint cannot be applied to locusts, for those referred to are described as warriors “burdened with their weapons” and falling “among their arrows.” Nevertheless, they would “by no means” be “finished off.” The army would continue to exist as a mighty military force. Accordingly, in relation to his “brother” or his fellow fighter, a warrior would not distance himself but would always be there to support his fellow soldier. Based on the reading of the Septuagint, the swarm of locusts could be understood to be a harbinger of the “day of YHWH” when a large and unstoppable army would invade the land, serving as the instrument for executing the foretold judgment upon the disobedient and unrepentant people. (2:8; see the Notes section.)
The vast host of invaders is portrayed as affecting a populated place. They “rush” upon the city, “run” on the walls, ascend the exterior of the houses, and enter the windows as would a thief. This description could apply either to a locust swarm (as may be the meaning of the Masoretic Text) or a military force (as is the apparent significance of the Septuagint rendering). (2:9)
The “trembling” of the earth or land before the swarm of locusts (literally, “their faces”) could refer to the fear the plague would engender among the inhabitants of the land, for the people knew that crops would be devastated and famine conditions would follow. When in flight, a large locust swarm can hide the sky as do clouds, obscuring the light of the sun, the moon, and the stars. In the case of the Septuagint rendering, the words could be understood to mean that there would be no bright prospect for the people, as if the sun and the moon were darkened and the stars had withdrawn their light. These developments are apparently included in the reference to the “shaking” of the heavens. (2:10)
YHWH’s giving “his voice before the face of his force” could refer to his voice resounding like thunder as he leads his army or to his summoning his force for action. This army can either be a large locust swarm or a mighty military force (LXX). The three phrases that follow are introduced by the Hebrew word ki and the corresponding Greek word hóti in the first two occurrences and then dióti. Depending on the context, the Hebrew and Greek words may be rendered “that,” “for,” “since,” or “because.” (2:11)
The first phrase relates to YHWH’s camp or the camp of his force as being great or numerous. Literally translated, the second phrase in the Hebrew text reads, “because mighty making his word.” The corresponding Septuagint rendering is, “because mighty [are the] works of his words.” Perhaps the basic thought is that the “making” or “working” of YHWH’s word is mighty or irresistible and, therefore, certain of accomplishment. The final phrase describes the “day of YHWH” as “great” and as “exceedingly terrifying.” Then comes the question, “And who can endure [kul] it?” Because YHWH’s camp is numerous, because his word is certain to be carried out, because his day is great and fear-inspiring, no one who opposes his will can hope to escape the punitive judgment. (2:11; see the Notes section about how translators have variously interpreted this verse.)
There was only one way for the people of Judah to escape the fearful judgment that YHWH’s day would bring, and he made this known to them through his prophet. They needed to return to him as a repentant people, doing so with all their “heart” or their inmost selves. To manifest their repentance outwardly, they were to fast and, in expression of their sadness about having transgressed YHWH’s commands, they were to weep and wail or mourn. (2:12)
Outward displays of sorrow were not sufficient for YHWH to grant forgiveness to his people and to spare them from his punitive judgment. Mourners, in expression of their grief, would tear their garments, exposing their breasts. The word of YHWH through his prophet, however, directed them to tear their hearts, not their garments. This would mean that, in their inmost selves, they were to feel deep and intense sorrow and pain on account of their transgressions. As a repentant people, they were to turn to YHWH their God, confident that they would be forgiven “because he is gracious and merciful [‘merciful and compassionate’ (LXX)], slow to anger and great in kindness [‘abundantly merciful’ (LXX)], and regretting over evil [‘evils’ (LXX)].” (2:13; see the Notes section.)
In his dealings, YHWH is a God who wants to show compassion and to be patient and forbearing, extending every opportunity possible for transgressors to abandon their wayward ways. The reference to “regretting over evil” identifies YHWH as willing to refrain from bringing the threatened evil or calamity upon transgressors if they repentantly turn to him and seek to do his will. Translators have interpretively rendered the words about “regretting over evil” as “renouncing punishment” (Tanakh [NJPS]), “relenting in punishment” (NAB), “ready always to relent when he threatens disaster” (REB); “I don’t like to punish” (CEV); “he is always ready to forgive and not punish” (GNT, Second Edition). “He can change his mind about doing harm” (NCV). (2:13)
After YHWH is identified as a merciful God, the words that follow are framed from the standpoint of those who have sinned against him. Upon recognizing the gravity of their transgressions, they may feel uncertain about whether they can be forgiven. Sinners may also be aware that they cannot presume on what YHWH may or may not do. They do not know to what extent he may mitigate punishment. Accordingly, it remained an open question when it came to knowing whether YHWH would turn from inflicting punishment, would “regret,” relenting from the judgment he had previously announced through his prophet, and would leave behind a blessing instead of allowing the land to be completely devastated. For a blessing to be left would mean that offerings and libations could be presented to YHWH at the temple. As products of the fields and the vineyards, the offerings would be grain offerings and drink offerings of wine. (2:14)
The blowing of a shofar (“trumpeting a trumpet” [LXX]), a ram’s-horn trumpet, in Zion would serve as a signal for the people to act on the proclamation to be made. Sanctifying a fast denoted setting aside a time for abstaining from food as an expression of sorrow and repentance and as an outward manifestation of a plea to be shown mercy. Calling an assembly would require summoning the people to come together at the temple and to acknowledge their transgressions and to seek YHWH’s forgiveness and mercy. (2:15)
The directive for the people to assemble applied to everyone. As a congregation, they were to be sanctified or set apart as ceremonially fit to appear before YHWH at his temple and to petition him to be merciful. All would be affected by the threatened punishment, and so all needed to be present at the solemn gathering. Neither the elders, or the aged members of the community, nor the very young, the children and nursing infants, were exempt from being included among the assembled people. It would not even be a time for a bridegroom and a bride to enjoy the first day of their union as husband and wife, but they were to leave their respective chambers and join the rest of the people in fasting and supplicating God for forgiveness and mercy. (2:16)
The priests would already have been at the temple, and so they are not included in the call for the people to assemble. In the courtyard of the temple “between the porch” of the sanctuary “and the altar, they, the “servants of YHWH,” would be weeping, sharing with the people in their expression of sorrow over transgressions. The priests would plead, “Spare, O YHWH, your people and do not make your inheritance a reproach, to a byword [mashál] among the nations. Why should they say among the peoples, ‘Where [is] their God?’” (2:17; see the Notes section.)
The supplication of the priests would be for YHWH to spare his people from the threatened punitive judgment. As his people, the Israelites belonged to him. They were his inheritance. For the people of other nations to see them reduced to a state of misery would result in their looking upon YHWH’s inheritance as an object of reproach. Foreign peoples would make the suffering Israelites a byword as part of an expression of mockery. As it would appear to them that YHWH had abandoned his people, they would question just where he might be in that he had done nothing to spare his people from great suffering. (2:17)
As a verb, the Hebrew word mashál can mean “to rule,” “to speak a proverb” or “to use as a byword.” The same consonants as a noun designate a proverb, a byword, or a parable. In the Septuagint, the corresponding word for mashál is katárcho, meaning “rule” or “govern.” When the threatened calamity relates to the plague of locusts, a rendering that fits the sense of “byword” would be preferable. If, however, a military invasion is in view, the reference to nations ruling over the people is appropriate. (2:17)
That YHWH responded favorably to his people is particularly evident from the Septuagint rendering. The verbs are in the aorist tense, relating to past developments. YHWH’s jealousy or zeal for his land would have been manifest in his not permitting it to be completely devastated. He spared his people or had pity on them, not letting them experience the suffering that would have resulted from ruin to their crops. (2:18; see the Notes section.)
YHWH, doubtless through his prophet, assured the people that he would send them, or provide for them, grain, wine, and oil. The grain fields, vineyards, and olive trees would produce abundantly, making it possible for the people to eat to satisfaction. YHWH would bless his people and thus not make them or let them become an object of reproach among the people of the other nations. (2:19; see the Notes section.)
The words about the “northerner,” while retaining elements that relate to the swarm of locusts, appear to apply in a more general sense to any force that might attack God’s people. Swarms of locusts came from the south, and so would not be described as “northerners.” Vast inhospitable desert areas lay east of the land the Israelites inhabited. Therefore, attacking forces from major powers did not march through the desert but took the longer northern route and launched their military campaigns from the north. (2:20)
Swarms of desert locusts fly with the wind and so can be driven, as the verse says, into a dry and desolate land or into the sea. (Compare Exodus 10:19.) Seemingly, the destruction of the “northerner” or the attacking force is being depicted in language that somewhat describes what can happen to a swarm of desert locusts. YHWH is represented as the one who would drive the “face” or front of the “northerner” into the eastern sea (the Dead Sea) and the rear of the “northerner” into the western sea (the Mediterranean). The “northerner” would rot, and the stench of decay would ascend. Dead locusts may wash ashore, and the smell from piles of decaying locusts would then fill the air. (2:20)
There are translators who have interpretively applied the concluding phrase (“for he has magnified to act” or, according to the Septuagint, “for he has magnified his works”) to God. “The LORD works wonders and does great things.” (CEV) “Surely the Lord has done great things!” (NLT) “The Lord has surely done a wonderful thing!” (NCV) “Surely he has done great things.” (NIV) It appears preferable, however, to regard the introductory “for” or “because” (ki) as setting forth the reason for YHWH’s action against the “northerner.” The magnifying of the northerner’s doing could be understood to refer to its launching a proud assault on God’s people and their land. A number of translations convey this basic sense in their renderings. “I will destroy them because of all they have done to you.” (GNT, Second Edition) “So I will punish your enemy for his arrogance.” (So strafe ich euren Feind für seine Überheblichkeit. [German, Hoffnung für alle]) (2:20)
YHWH did not permit the land of his people to be completely devastated. Therefore, it is represented as not having to fear. As a land that did not become transformed into the sad appearance of desolation, it is told to rejoice and exalt. YHWH provided the circumstances for the joyous state by magnifying his taking action, accomplishing great things when safeguarding his people and their land. (2:21)
The beasts of the field did not need to fear, for their environment would not be ruined. “Fields of the wilderness” would sprout, indicating that vegetation would flourish and provide ample food for animals. Fruit-bearing trees would thrive, and fig trees and grapevines would “give their strength” or produce in abundance. (2:22)
The “sons” or inhabitants of Zion or Jerusalem were invited to rejoice in YHWH their God. This is on account of what he had done for them when providing the “early rain” (mohréh) in the fall and the latter rain in the spring, making it possible for crops to flourish. YHWH acted as he did formerly when he blessed his people. (2:23)
The Hebrew word mohréh, here translated “early rain,” is linked to the words “for your righteousness” and the corresponding phrase in the Septuagint is, “food for righteousness.” Perhaps the thought is that, because of the rain, the people would have food, and this would be the evidence of YHWH’s righteous or just dealings with his people. As recipients of the just dealings, the people could be viewed as possessors of this righteousness (their “righteousness”). The uncertainty about the meaning of the words is reflected in the varying renderings of modern translations. “He has given you the autumn rains in righteousness.” (NIV) “He has given the early rain for your vindication.” (NRSV) “He has given you autumn rain as justice demands.” (NJB) “He has given you the early rain in [His] kindness.” (Tanakh [NJPS]) “The LORD your God, who gives you food in due measure by sending you rain.” (REB) “He is generous and has sent the autumn and spring rains in the proper seasons.” (CEV) (2:23; see the Notes section.)
Bountiful barley and wheat harvests would result in an abundance of grain for threshing on the threshing floors. With exceptional yields from vineyards and olive groves, the juice from grapes for making wine and the oil from crushed olives would overflow in the vats. (2:24)
YHWH promised to bless his people, recompensing them for the losses they had experienced from locusts and other insects in previous years. His great destructive “force” includes the same insects that were mentioned in verse 4 of chapter 1 (which see for comments.) The order in which the insects are listed here in verse 25, however, is not the same (“locust” [Hebrew, ’arbéh; Greek, akrís]; “hopper” or locust in its wingless state [Hebrew, yéleq; Greek, broúchos]; possibly the locust in one of the stages of its life cycle or the cockroach [Hebrew, chasíl] but “rust,” “blight,” or “mildew” [erysíbe] according to the Septuagint, and “caterpillar” [Hebrew, gazám; Greek, kámpe]). (2:25)
In Joel 1:6, this great “force” or army is portrayed as having come into YHWH’s land. Here, in verse 25, YHWH is represented as having sent it among his people. This parallel illustrates that his sending denotes his permitting the development. (2:25)
On account of abundant harvests, the people would be eating to satisfaction. In appreciation for the bounties, they would “praise the name [or the person] of YHWH,” their God who had dealt so marvelously with them. With YHWH’s blessing and safeguarding, his people would not be ashamed for all time to come. In the Septuagint, the emphatic sense is conveyed by two words for “not” and, in relation to “ashamed,” may be rendered “will by no means be ashamed.” (2:26)
Based on their again enjoying divine favor as apparent from abundant harvests, the people would know or recognize that YHWH was in the “midst of Israel” or with them as his people. He alone was their God, with there being no one besides him. At the time they found themselves in distressing circumstances on account of meager yields at harvest time, the people would have experienced shame and appeared as persons whom YHWH had abandoned. This situation would end for those whom he recognized as his people. No more would they be ashamed in ages to come. In the Septuagint, the assurance is emphatic, for two words meaning “not” precede the verb for “ashamed” and may be translated “by no means.” (2:27; see the Notes section.)
As revealed in the previous verses, repentant persons are the ones whom YHWH recognizes as his people and to whom he grants his favorable attention. Therefore, the future imparting of his spirit would be on repentant ones who had been forgiven of their sins. According to the reading of the Septuagint, God is represented as promising, “I will pour out from [apó] my spirit upon all flesh.” This wording suggests that he would impart a portion of his spirit to all, young and old, male and female, and even persons in servitude. (2:28 [3:1])
According to Acts 2:14-16, the apostle Peter explained that those who heard the disciples of Jesus Christ speaking in tongues witnessed the fulfillment of the words of the prophet Joel. (See the comments on Acts chapter 2 and the accompanying Notes section.) The words in Joel 2:28 do not refer to any speaking in tongues, but do indicate that prophesying on the part of sons and daughters would make it evident that they had received God’s spirit. In the case of prophesying, the principal aspect was the declaring of God’s message, which did at times include the foretelling of future events. The speaking in tongues did involve prophesying, for those who listened to what was being said in their own languages understood the words to be about the “great things of God.” (Acts 2:8-11) Although referring to the pouring out of the spirit as the act of the resurrected and exalted Lord Jesus Christ, Peter identified God as the One from whom Jesus had received the spirit (Acts 2:32, 33) Accordingly, in fulfillment of the words in Joel, YHWH poured out his spirit through his Son. (2:28 [3:1])
Against the backdrop of what is recorded in the book of Acts (9:10-16; 10:9-17; 16:9, 10), the dreams elders or old men dreamed and the visions that young men saw provided them with guidance about how they should carry out their service to God and Jesus Christ, revealed aspects of God’s will to them, and clarified what was divinely approved. (2:28 [3:1])
Women, even women who found themselves in bondage, would not be excluded from having God’s spirit imparted to them “in those days” or at the time the prophetic words came to be fulfilled. Both male and female slaves would receive God’s spirit. In Acts 2:18, God is represented as calling them “my male slaves” and “my female slaves,” indicating that he honored them as belonging to him. (2:29 [3:2])
At the time the disciples of Jesus Christ received God’s spirit on the day of Pentecost, God did give “portents” in “heaven,” or from above in the sky, and “signs” on the “earth” or on the land. From out of heaven came a sound comparable to that of a fierce tempest and that rushing wind filled the house in which the disciples were gathered. The tongue-like flames that appeared above the heads of each one of them could also be regarded as a portent from heaven. Thereafter when the disciples spoke in tongues (Acts 2:2, 3), this proved to be a sign on earth. (2:30 [3:3])
These developments pointed to the coming of a time of judgment, for not all responded favorably to the evidence of divine activity. (Acts 2:13) This aspect is included in the words that follow. “Blood” suggests a time of slaughter as takes place during war, and fire and “columns of smoke” or “smoky vapor” (literally, “vapor of smoke” [LXX]) are likewise associated with military conflicts. Armies set houses and other structures on fire, creating haze and smoke. (2:30 [3:3])
The day of YHWH, the time for him to execute judgment, is described as “great and fearful” or “notable” (LXX), indicating that it would be of unprecedented significance and have a terrifying impact on those against whom the judgment would be directed. Linked to that day is a period of darkness or gloom. It would then appear that light, or any glimmer of hope, had been blotted out for the people as when a dark shadow passes over the sun during a solar eclipse or when the moon turns red (the color of blood) during a lunar eclipse. The turning of the sun “to darkness and the moon to blood” could also allude to what happens during campaigns of conquest. The thick smoke from burning houses and other buildings can obscure the light of the sun, and the fires raging at night can make the moon take on a reddish color. (2:31 [3:4])
There would be survivors. All who call on the “name” or the person of YHWH would be saved. These would be persons who recognize him as their God and are devoted to him as evident from their faithful adherence to his commands. In Mount Zion and in the city of Jerusalem as a whole, there would be escapees, persons who would not perish. This is the assurance that is represented as coming from YHWH, and “among the survivors” would be those “whom YHWH calls.” (2:32 [3:5])
The Septuagint does not contain a corresponding noun for the Hebrew word translated “survivors” but renders the Hebrew with a participial form of the verb euangelízo, meaning “to evangelize” or “to proclaim good news.” It appears preferable to consider this participle to designate those to whom the message is proclaimed and not to the evangelizers, those who make the glad tidings known. The phrase that includes the participial form of euangelízo may be translated, “and the ones being evangelized, whom the Lord has called.” This may be understood to mean that the manner in which God does the calling to himself is by having his servants declare the good news to others. As expressed in the Hebrew text, the “survivors” would then be those who respond favorably to this calling and thus come to be persons whom YHWH approves. (2:32 [3:5]; compare Acts 2:39.)
Notes
In a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIg), as in the Septuagint, the preposition translated “for” precedes “battle” (verse 5), but it is not included in the Masoretic Text.
In verses 7 and 8 of the Septuagint, the rendering “by no means” preserves the emphatic sense of the two Greek words for “not.”
There is a measure of obscurity about the wording of verse 11 in the extant Hebrew text. Translators have added words and left others untranslated in an effort to convey an understandable significance. “And, Yahweh, hath uttered his voice, before his host, for great indeed is his camp, for bold is he who executeth his word, — for great is the day of Yahweh, and awful exceedingly, Who then shall endure it?” (Rotherham) “And Jehovah hath given forth His voice before His force, For very great [is] His camp, For mighty [is] the doer of His word, For great [is] the day of Jehovah — very fearful, And who doth bear it?” (Young) “The Lord raises His voice in the presence of His army. His camp is very large; Those who carry out His command are powerful. Indeed, the Day of the Lord is terrible and dreadful — who can endure it?” (HCSB) “The LORD thunders as he leads his host; his is a mighty army, countless are those who do his bidding. Great is the day of the LORD and most terrible; who can endure it?” (REB) “The Lord thunders commands to his army. The troops that obey him are many and mighty. How terrible is the day of the Lord! Who will survive it?” (GNT, Second Edition) “The LORD shouts out orders to his army. His army is very large! Those who obey him are very strong! The LORD’s day of judging is an overwhelming and terrible day. No one can stand up against it!” (NCV)
In verse 11, a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc) contains another form of the verb kul, which may also be translated “endure.”
In verse 13, a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc) contains the plural form of the word gedí (“kids,” the young ones of goats) instead of the plural of béged, meaning “garments.” This is likely a scribal error. If the initial beth (B) had been included, the word would be the same one as in the Masoretic Text.
The first two Greek words of the Septuagint in verse 17 are aná méson, usually meaning “among,” “in the middle,” or “between.” None of these expressions convey an intelligible phrase in relation to the words “foundation of the altar.” Therefore, translators of the Septuagint commonly resort to an emendation (“between the foundation and the altar”).
In the Septuagint, the word for “spare” is a form of the same verb (pheídomai) in verses 17 and 18. The Hebrew words, however, are not the same but are similar in meaning. In verse 18, the Hebrew word chamál can be translated either as “spare” or “have pity,” as also may the Greek word pheídomai.
In verse 19, the expanded text of a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc) reads, “and you will eat and you will be satisfied.”
In verse 23, the Hebrew word mohréh, translated “early rain,” can also denote “teacher,” which is the rendering found in the Vulgate (laetamini in Domino Deo vestro quia dedit vobis doctorem iustitiae [“rejoice in the Lord your God, for he has given you a teacher of righteousness”]).
In the Septuagint rendering of verse 27, the phrasing that includes the expression “I am” (egó eimi) parallels the grammatical construction of the phrase in John 8:58. In both texts, “I am” follows a prepositional phrase (“in the midst of Israel, I am” [Joel 2:27]; “before Abraham existed, I am”). In the Hebrew text of Joel 2:27, however, the verb “am” is not included but needs to be supplied in translation.
In “those days” or at the time when YHWH would give his favorable attention to those whom he recognizes as his people, he would “turn,” or bring an end to, the captive condition that had previously existed for the inhabitants of Judah and the capital city Jerusalem. In view of the earlier reference to the pouring out of God’s spirit, there would be a basis for considering the prophetic word as relating to those who became disciples of Jesus Christ. In that case, the captivity of Judah and Jerusalem to other nations would be representative of enslavement to sin, and the turning of that captivity would denote being forgiven of sins and reconciled to God. (3:1 [4:1]; compare John 8:31-36.)
The prophetic words are expressed in language that reflected the then-existing circumstances. Therefore, the assurance of security for God’s people appears to be represented in terms of God’s promise to act against their enemies for what they had done to them. YHWH is portrayed as having determined to “gather all the nations and bring them down to the valley of Jehoshaphat.” During the reign of the Judean monarch Jehoshaphat, the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites (warriors from Mount Seir or the mountainous country of Seir) formed an alliance to attack the two-tribe kingdom of Judah. According to the biblical account, YHWH saved his people by means of an ambush, causing the Moabites and Ammonites to join in fighting against the warriors from the mountainous territory of Seir. After having annihilated the Edomite warriors, the Moabites and Ammonites slaughtered one another. (2 Chronicles 20:22, 23) Accordingly, the valley of Jehoshaphat appears to be representative of a location where the enemies of God’s people would face destruction. (3:2 [4:2])
YHWH’s judgment against the assembled nations would be based on what they had done to his people. He is portrayed as calling his people “my inheritance Israel.” The enemy nations had attacked his people, had scattered them among other nations, and had divided the land that they had seized from them. As the Creator, YHWH was the owner of the land, and he had promised to the forefathers of the Israelites that he would give this land to their descendants. (Genesis 12:7; 26:3; 28:4; Leviticus 25:23) Therefore, he is spoken of as calling it “my land.” (3:2 [4:2])
When defeating God’s people, the enemies humiliated the captives. They would cast lots to determine to whom the Israelite captives would belong. Treating them like goods to be bought and sold, the victors would give a boy “for a harlot,” probably meaning as the price for the services of a prostitute. According to the rendering of the Septuagint, they gave boys to harlots. The enemies would sell a girl (“girls,” LXX) for the amount needed to purchase wine to drink. (3:3 [4:3])
YHWH considers what has been done to his people as having been done to him. The question as to what Tyre, Sidon and all the “regions of Philistia” were to him implied that the people from those locations had no relationship with him. They did not recognize him as the only true God who would take action against those who resisted his will, and he did not acknowledge them as his own. The rhetorical question about repaying repayment implied that the people of Tyre, Sidon, and Philistia were repaying YHWH for what he had done to them. There was, however, no basis for their hateful actions against his people and, accordingly, against him. So, if they were repaying YHWH, doing so without any justification, they could only expected “swift” and “speedy” repayment on their “heads” or upon themselves. Retribution would not be delayed. (3:4 [4:4]; see the Notes section regarding the Septuagint rendering.)
Just as the Israelites and their land belonged to YHWH, so did everything they possessed. For this reason he is represented as saying “my silver and my gold” and “my good treasures.” When these precious metals and other valuables fell into their hands through warfare, the Philistines and the people of Tyre and Sidon deposited these treasures in their temples, thereby honoring their deities and wrongly imagining that their gods and goddesses were superior to YHWH. (3:5 [4:5])
Captives of war often were sold into slavery. The Philistines and the people of Tyre and Sidon sold captive “sons of Judah and sons of Jerusalem to the sons of the Greeks.” In this case, “sons” denotes people. As slaves in a distant country, Israelites from Judah and Jerusalem found themselves far from the border of their homeland. (3:6 [4:6])
YHWH promised to liberate his enslaved people. From the place to which the Philistines, Tyrians, and Sidonians had sold Israelites from Judah and Jerusalem, he would “arouse” them, not leaving them in a state of servitude. At that time, he would return repayment on the “head” (“heads,” LXX) of the Philistines, Tyrians, and Sidonians for what they had done. By having the retribution coming upon their heads, they themselves would experience like treatment. (3:7 [4:7])
YHWH is represented as effecting the retribution that the Philistines, Tyrians, and Sidonians deserved for what they had done. He would sell their sons and daughters to the “sons” or the people of Judah. In the “hand” of Judeans, these sons and daughters would be subject to their will. The Judeans would sell them to the Sabeans, to a distant nation (Sheba, thought to have been located in the southwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula). This judgment was sure, for YHWH had spoken or so decreed. Just as the Philistines, Tyrians, and Sidonians had been responsible for selling Judeans to people in a distant land, the Judeans would sell their sons and daughters to a land far away from their homeland. Evidence that enslaved Judeans were set free is found in the writings of Josephus. In the second century BCE, Demetrius I Soter, king of the Seleucid Empire, sent a letter to the Jewish high priest Jonathan, which included the words, “I set free the Jews that are inhabitants in my kingdom, and order that no injury be done them.” (Antiquities, XIII, ii, 3) (3:8 [4:8]; see the Notes section.)
Before engaging in military campaigns, the people of the various nations participated in rituals and offered sacrifices to invoke their deities to make them victorious. In this manner, they sanctified war, setting it apart as a sacred undertaking. The proclamation to the people of the nations challenged them to sanctify war, to arouse their mighty men to prepare themselves for battle, and to have the warriors draw near and come up to the valley of Jehoshaphat. (3:9, 12 [4:9, 12])
To have sufficient weapons for fighting, the people of the nations are challenged to beat plowshares into swords and pruning knives (“sickles,” LXX) into lances. Implements for peaceful agriculture that contributed food for the sustaining of life were to be transformed into instruments of destruction. Even the weak man among them was to muster up courage, declaring himself to be a mighty man or warrior. (3:10 [4:10])
The Hebrew imperative verb ‘ush does not appear elsewhere in the Scriptures, and there is a measure of uncertainty about what it means. In the Septuagint, the verb is a form of synathroízo, meaning “gather” or “bring together.” The Vulgate reads erumpite, a form of the verb erumpo, which as an intransitive verb denotes “to burst out” or “to break through.” Suggested lexical definitions for the Hebrew word include “give assistance,” “come to aid,” and “hurry.” (3:11 [4:11])
People from “all the nations” are directed to gather together, to render aid, or to come quickly. These are the nations that are located round about YHWH’s people and they, according to verse 11, are to assemble at the valley of Jehoshaphat. The gathering includes both confrontation and judgment, for the appeal to YHWH is for him to “bring down” his mighty ones, which could refer to his host of angels that would then be arrayed against the warriors of the nations. (3:11 [4:11])
In the Septuagint, there is no mention of God, but the concluding sentence reads, “Let the humble one be a warrior.” This rendering suggests that the meek, gentle, or unassuming man should muster up courage to be a warrior prepared for conflict. (3:11 [4:11])
The people of the nations are directed to arouse themselves or to ready themselves to come up to the valley of Jehoshaphat. During the reign of King Jehoshaphat, the Moabite, Ammonite, and Edomite armies that had come together against the two-tribe kingdom of Judah perished. Accordingly, the designation “valley of Jehoshaphat” for the place of assembly indicated that YHWH’s sitting in judgment of “all the surrounding nations” there would denote that they would come to their end. This is because the nations round about his people had proved themselves to be their hateful enemies. That the “valley of Jehoshaphat” represents the location for judgment is also evident from the name “Jehoshaphat,” meaning “YHWH is judge.” (3:12 [4:12])
The hostile people of the nations are likened to clusters of grapes that are ready to be harvested. Since the grapes are ripe, the directive is to send forth the sickle to cut the clusters. The filling of the upper basin of the winepress with the harvested grapes is not mentioned, but the focus is on the result. Those who would be stomping on the grapes are directed to go into the full basin of the press and to tread the grapes. In view of the great evil of the enemy nations, the vats into which the juice from the grapes flows is represented as overflowing. (3:13 [4:13]
The repetition of the designation for “crowds” indicates that a very large number of people from the nations are assembled. According to the Septuagint, “noises have resounded,” suggestive of great tumult. The valley of Jehoshaphat is identified as the “valley of the decision” or the “valley of judgment,” for YHWH will judge the avowed enemies of his people. His judgment is final. The “day of YHWH” is the expression that applies to the time of judgment in the “valley of decision” or “judgment,” and this day is referred to as having drawn near. (3:14 [4:14])
The day of YHWH would lead to a dark time for the people of the nations against whom his judgment would be executed. They would be facing doom. It would appear to them that the light of the sun and of the moon had been eclipsed and that the stars were no longer shining. The enemies of God’s people would have no hope of escape from the unchangeable judgment. (3:15 [4:15])
As the location of the temple, Zion or Jerusalem was YHWH’s representative place of dwelling. Therefore, when coming to judge the nations, he is represented as “roaring” from Zion and letting his voice be heard from Jerusalem. This “roaring” probably alludes to a powerful sound like thunder. In the context, the purpose of the “roaring” appears to be to command hosts of angels to carry out his judgment, and this results in the shaking of the heavens and the earth. (3:16 [4:16])
The expression “heavens” or “heaven and earth” may be understood to designate the realm in which humans live and which consists of the earth or land and the heaven or what appears to be a celestial dome that extends from horizon to horizon. With their entire realm shaking, those against whom YHWH’s judgment is directed would become terrified. He, however, would be a refuge for his people and like a secure stronghold. The great quaking would not affect them. According to the Septuagint rendering, YHWH would spare his people and strengthen them, the “sons of Israel. (3:16 [4:16])
As persons whom YHWH approves and safeguards, his people would know him as YHWH their God, with his representative place of dwelling being Zion, his holy mountain. The presence of YHWH made Jerusalem a holy city, and its holiness or cleanness would not be defiled, as “strangers” would not pass through the city again. In this case, the “strangers” would have been enemies who had attacked Jerusalem. (3:17 [4:17]; see the Notes section.)
In view of the earlier reference to the pouring out of God’s spirit, the prophetic language appears to point to a city that is greater than the earthly city of Jerusalem and one that is holy in the absolute sense. This city would be the one referred to centuries later as the “Jerusalem above,” to which no one but God’s approved people can have access as “sons” or citizens. (Galatians 4:16; Hebrews 12:22) As a heavenly city, the Jerusalem above is more than just YHWH’s representative place of dwelling, and its citizens are under his protective care. (3:17 [4:17])
The prosperous condition of God’s people is portrayed in terms of agriculture. In the “day” or the time when YHWH’s judgment would be executed against their enemies, they would no longer experience any devastation of their land. The grapevines growing on the mountain slopes would yield abundant grapes for producing new wine. Hills would then “flow with milk.” The thought appears to be that there would be lush vegetation growing on the hills, providing pasturage for goats and cattle. Thus it would be as if the hills had caused milk to flow by nourishing flocks and herds. During periods of drought many streams would dry up, but this circumstance is depicted as changing. All streambeds would flow with water. (3:18 [4:18])
The reference to a “spring from the house of YHWH” indicates that the portrayal in this verse is representative of a flourishing condition. No spring ever had its source at the temple in Jerusalem, forming a stream that filled the streambed of Shittim (or, “of acacia trees,” which would be growing along the banks of the stream [“torrent of the reeds,” LXX]). Since water is essential for vegetation to grow and flourish, the spring that has its source in the house of YHWH may be regarded as representing a life-giving provision that comes from him. All that is essential for eternal life, a life of an enduring relationship with God, is available through his unique Son, Jesus Christ. This includes forgiveness of sins, complete reconciliation with God as his approved children, and citizenship in the heavenly Jerusalem. All these blessings God made possible through his Son. (3:18 [4:18]; compare John 4:12-14; 8:31-36; Galatians 4:26; see the Notes section.)
To indicate the security that God’s people would enjoy, two enemy nations, Egypt and Edom, are represented as becoming desolate. The Edomites were descendants of Jacob’s twin brother Esau and so should have conducted themselves like brothers to the “sons” or the people of Judah. Jacob’s son Judah, from whom the Judeans descended, was Esau’s nephew. The Edomites, though, conducted themselves in a hateful manner toward the people of Judah. Like the Egyptians, they made themselves guilty of “violence” or “injustices” (LXX) to the Judeans. The spilling of “innocent” or “righteous” (LXX) blood is said to have taken place “in their land.” This could mean in the land of Judah, where the Egyptians and the Edomites spilled blood when warring against the Judeans. It is also possible to consider the reference to be either to the land of Edom or to the land of Egypt, and so could apply to the spilled blood of captives taken from the land of Judah. (3:19 [4:19]; see the Notes section.)
With enemy powers, represented by Egypt and Edom, ceasing to exist, those whom YHWH recognized as his people (inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem) would be secure for all time to come, from generation to generation. Unlike Egypt and Edom, Judah and Jerusalem are thus portrayed as continuing to be inhabited. This would especially apply to the heavenly Jerusalem and its citizens. (3:20 [4:20])
There is uncertainty about the meaning of the initial part of the concluding verse of the Hebrew text. A form of the Hebrew verb náqah appears twice, and it has been defined “be free,” “be blameless,” “be emptied,” “hold innocent,” and “leave unpunished.” In the first case, náqah relates to YHWH’s action regarding the “blood” of his people. For the second occurrence, “not” precedes the verb. One possible rendering that preserves the same meaning for náqah in both occurrences could be, “And I will hold their blood innocent [that] I did not hold innocent.” This could mean that, in the past, YHWH did not treat his people as blameless. Therefore, he did not consider their blood to be that of guiltless persons, leading to their being punished for their transgressions. This would change. YHWH would respond in a positive manner toward his repentant people, holding them innocent or approved in his sight. This would be evident from his presence with them, for he is identified as dwelling in Zion. From the standpoint of the earthly Zion or Jerusalem, YHWH would be with his people, guiding, helping, and sustaining them. (3:21 [4:21])
The opening phrase of the Septuagint could be rendered, “And I will avenge their blood and by no means acquit.” This may be understood to mean that YHWH would avenge the unjustly shed blood of his people and that he would not hold guiltless those who had incurred bloodguilt. (3:21 [4:21]; see the Notes section.)
Earthly Zion, as the location of YHWH’s temple, proved to be his representative place of dwelling. The heavenly Zion is where he is present in person, and those whom he recognizes as his people are citizens of that heavenly city. In the case of any of these citizens whose innocent blood may have been shed, YHWH will not leave the guilty ones unpunished. (3:21 [4:21]; compare Revelation 6:9-11.)
Notes
In verse 4, the Septuagint rendering for the expression translated “regions of Philistia” is “Galilee of allophyles [those of another tribe].” Both the Hebrew word for “regions” and the designation for Galilee (Galiloth) are the same, and “allophyles” is a common rendering in the Septuagint for “Philistines.” The Septuagint includes a rhetorical question that is not in the Hebrew text. According to the punctuation in Rahlfs’ printed text, this question may be rendered, “Or do you quickly bear resentment against me?”
The Hebrew words for “Sabeans” and “captivity” are similar, and this may account for the difference in the rendering of the Septuagint in verse 8 (“they will sell them into captivity to a nation that is far away”).
In verse 8, a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc) contains the partially preserved expression that may be translated “YHWH of hosts.”
In the Masoretic Text of verse 17, YHWH is referred to as “dwelling” in Zion. Instead of the participle that means “dwelling,” a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc) contains the reading “who dwells.”
In a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc) reading of verse 18, the Hebrew word for “all” precedes náchal, here rendered “streambed.”
With reference to the desolation of Edom (verse 19), the Hebrew word for “wilderness” appears twice (“a wilderness, a desolate wilderness”) in a Dead Sea Scroll (4QXIIc).
In verse 21, the Septuagint rendering “by no means” preserves the emphatic sense of the two Greek words for “not.”